1. IS 2150 / TEL 2810 Introduction to Security
September 7, 2006 Lecture 2

2. Mathematics Review

3. Propositional logic/calculus
Atomic, declarative statements (propositions)
that can be shown to be either TRUE or FALSE but not both; E.g., “Sky is blue”; “3 is less than 4”
Propositions can be composed into compound sentences using connectives
Negation  p (NOT) highest precedence
Disjunction p  q (OR) second precedence
Conjunction p  q (AND) second precedence
Implication p  q q logical consequence of p
Exercise: Truth tables?

4. Propositional logic/calculus
Contradiction:
Formula that is always false : p  p
What about: (p  p)?
Tautology:
Formula that is always True : p  p
What about: (p  p)?
Others
Exclusive OR: p  q; p or q but not both
Bi-condition: p  q [p if and only if q (p iff q)]
Logical equivalence: p  q [p is logically equivalent to q]
Some exercises…

5. Some Laws of Logic Double negation DeMorgan’s law Commutative
(p  q)  (p  q)
(p  q)  (p  q)
Commutative
(p  q)  (q  p)
Associative law
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  r
Distributive law
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)

6. Predicate/first order logic
Propositional logic
Variable, quantifiers, constants and functions
Consider sentence: Every directory contains some files
Need to capture “every” “some”
F(x): x is a file
D(y): y is a directory
C(x, y): x is a file in directory y

7. Predicate/first order logic
Existential quantifiers  (There exists)
E.g.,  x is read as There exists x
Universal quantifiers  (For all)
y D(y)  (x (F(x) C(x, y)))
read as
for every y, if y is a directory, then there exists a x such that x is a file and x is in directory y
What about x F(x)  (y (D(y) C(x, y)))?

8. Mathematical Induction
Proof technique - to prove some mathematical property
E.g. want to prove that M(n) holds for all natural numbers
Base case OR Basis:
Prove that M(1) holds
Induction Hypothesis:
Assert that M(n) holds for n = 1, …, k
Induction Step:
Prove that if M(k) holds then M(k+1) holds

9. Mathematical Induction
Exercise: prove that sum of first n natural numbers is
S(n): 1 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
S(n): 1^ n^2 = n (n +1)(2n + 1)/6

10. Lattice Sets Binary relation R from S to T is a subset of S x T
Collection of unique elements
Let S, T be sets
Cartesian product: S x T = {(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
A set of order pairs
Binary relation R from S to T is a subset of S x T
Binary relation R on S is a subset of S x S
If (a, b)  R we write aRb
Example:
R is “less than equal to” ()
For S = {1, 2, 3}
Example of R on S is {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), ????)
(1, 2)  R is another way of writing 1  2

11. Lattice Properties of relations Reflexive: Anti-symmetric: Transitive:
if aRa for all a  S
Anti-symmetric:
if aRb and bRa implies a = b for all a, b  S
Transitive:
if aRb and bRc imply that aRc for all a, b, c  S
Which properties hold for “less than equal to” ()?
Draw the Hasse diagram Captures
all the relations

12. Lattice Total ordering: Partial ordering (poset):
when the relation orders all elements
E.g., “less than equal to” () on natural numbers
Partial ordering (poset):
the relation orders only some elements not all
E.g. “less than equal to” () on complex numbers; Consider (2 + 4i) and (3 + 2i)

13. Lattice u is an upper bound of a and b means aRu and bRu
Upper bound (u, a, b  S)
u is an upper bound of a and b means aRu and bRu
Least upper bound : lub(a, b) closest upper bound
Lower bound (u, a, b  S)
l is a lower bound of a and b means lRa and lRb
Greatest lower bound : glb(a, b) closest lower bound

14. Lattice
A lattice is the combination of a set of elements S and a relation R meeting the following criteria
R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive on the elements of S
For every s, t  S, there exists a greatest lower bound
For every s, t  S, there exists a lowest upper bound
Some examples
S = {1, 2, 3} and R = ?
S = {2+4i; 1+2i; 3+2i, 3+4i} and R = ?

15. Overview of Lattice Based Models
Confidentiality
Bell LaPadula Model
First rigorously developed model for high assurance - for military
Objects are classified
Objects may belong to Compartments
Subjects are given clearance
Classification/clearance levels form a lattice
Two rules
No read-up
No write-down

16. Access Control Matrix

17. ACM Background Access Control Matrix
Captures the current protection state of a system
Butler Lampson proposed the first Access Control Matrix model
Graham and Denning refined it
Harrison, Russo and Ulman modified it and presented some theoretical results

18. Protection System State of a system Protection state (P)
Current values of
memory locations, registers, secondary storage, etc.
other system components
Protection state (P)
A system state that is considered secure
A protection system
Captures the conditions for state transition
Consists of two parts:
A set of generic rights
A set of commands

19. Protection System Subject (S: set of all subjects)
Active entities that carry out an action/operation on other entities; Eg.: users, processes, agents, etc.
Object (O: set of all objects)
Eg.:Processes, files, devices
Right (R: set of all rights)
An action/operation that a subject is allowed/disallowed on objects
Access Matrix A: a[s, o] ⊆R
Set of Protection States: (S, O, A)

20. Access Control Matrix Model
Describes the protection state of a system.
Elements indicate the access rights that subjects have on objects
ACM is an abstract model
Rights may vary depending on the objects involved
ACM is implemented primarily in two ways
Capabilities (rows)
Access control lists (columns)

21. Access Control Matrix

22. Access Control Matrix telegraph is a PC with ftp client but no server
Hostnames
Telegraph
Nob
Toadflax
own
ftp
ftp, nsf, mail, own
ftp, nfs, mail
ftp, mail
telegraph is a PC with ftp client but no server
nob provides NFS but not to Toadfax
nob and toadfax can exchange mail
Counter
Inc_ctr
Dcr_ctr
Manager + -
manager
Call

23. State Transitions Let initial state X0 = (S0, O0, A0) Notation
Xi ├i+1 Xi+1 : upon transition i+1, the system moves from state Xi to Xi+1
X ├* Y : the system moves from state X to Y after a set of transitions
Xi ├ ci+1 (pi+1,1, pi+1,2, …, pi+1,m) Xi+1 : state transition upon a command
For every command there is a sequence of state transition operations

24. Primitive commands (Graham-Denning)
Create subject s
Creates new row, column in ACM;
Create object o
Creates new column in ACM
Destroy subject s
Deletes row, column from ACM;
Destroy object o
Deletes column from ACM
Read access right of s on o
Copy a[s, o] to x
Delete access right r of s on o
Removes r right from subject s over object o
Grant access right r of s on o
Adds r right for subject s over object o
Transfer access right r or r* to s on o

25. Primitive commands (HRU)
Create subject s
Creates new row, column in ACM;
Create object o
Creates new column in ACM
Enter r into a[s, o]
Adds r right for subject s over object o
Delete r from a[s, o]
Removes r right from subject s over object o
Destroy subject s
Deletes row, column from ACM;
Destroy object o
Deletes column from ACM

26. System commands
[Unix] process p creates file f with owner read and write (r, w) will be represented by the following:
Command create_file(p, f)
Create object f
Enter own into a[p,f]
Enter r into a[p,f]
Enter w into a[p,f]
End

27. Process p creates a new process q
Command spawn_process(p, q)
Create object q;
Enter own into a[p,q]
Enter r into a[p,q]
Enter w into a[p,q]
Enter r into a[q,r]
Enter w into a[q,r]
End

28. System commands Defined commands can be used to update ACM
Command make_owner(p, f)
Enter own into a[p,f]
End
Mono-operational: the command invokes only one primitive

29. Conditional Commands Mono-operational + mono-conditional
Command grant_read_file(p, f, q)
If own in a[p,f]
Then
Enter r into a[q,f]
End

30. Conditional Commands Mono-operational + biconditional Why not “OR”??
Command grant_read_file(p, f, q)
If r in a[p,f] and c in a[p,f]
Then
Enter r into a[q,f]
End
Why not “OR”??

31. Attenuation of privilege
Principle of attenuation
A subject may not give rights that it does not posses to others
Copy
Augments existing rights
Often attached to a right, so only applies to that right
r is read right that cannot be copied
rc is read right that can be copied
Also called the grant right

32. Attenuation of privilege
Own
Allows adding or deleting rights, and granting rights to others
Creator has the own right
Subjects may be granted own right
Owner may give rights that he does not have to others on the objects he owns (chown command)
Example: John owns file f but does not have read permission over it. John can grant read right on f to Matt.

33. Fundamental questions
How can we determine that a system is secure?
Need to define what we mean by a system being “secure”
Is there a generic algorithm that allows us to determine whether a computer system is secure?
We will wait till next time …..

34. Unix File System Overview

35. Unix file security Each file has owner and group
Permissions set by owner
Read, write, execute
Owner, group, other
Represented by vector of four octal values
Only owner, root can change permissions
This privilege cannot be delegated or shared

36. Unix File Permissions File type, owner, group, others
drwx jjoshi isfac Aug risk management
lrwxrwxrwx 1 jjoshi isfac Apr 7 09:11 risk_m->risk management
-rw-r--r jjoshi isfac Mar 8 18:11 words05.ps
-r-sr-xr-x 1 root bin Apr /usr/bin/rs
-r-sr-sr-x 1 root sys Apr /usr/bin/passwd
File type: regular -, directory d, symlink l, device b/c, socket s, fifo f/p
Permission: r, w, x, s or S (set.id), t (sticky)

37. User ids Each process has three Ids Real user ID (RUID)
same as the user ID of parent (unless changed)
used to determine which user started the process
Effective user ID (EUID)
from set user ID bit on the file being executed, or sys call
determines the permissions for process
Saved user ID (SUID)
Allows restoring previous EUID

38. User ids Similarly we have While accessing files Real group ID,
Effective group ID,
While accessing files
Process EUID compared against the file UID
GIDs are compared

39. IDs/Operations Root can access any file Fork and Exec
Inherit three IDs,
except exec of file with setuid bit
Setuid system calls
seteuid(newid) can set EUID to
Real ID or saved ID, regardless of current EUID
Any ID, if EUID=0
Related calls: setuid, seteuid, setgid, setegid

40. Setid bits on executable Unix file
Three setid bits
setuid
set EUID of process to ID of file owner
setgid
set EGID of process to GID of file
setuid/setgid used when a process executes a file
If setuid (setgid) bit is on – the EUID of the process changed to UID (GUID) of the file
Sticky
Off: if user has write permission on directory, can rename or remove files, even if not owner
On: only file owner, directory owner, and root can rename or remove file in the directory

41. Example Owner 18 RUID 25 SetUID …; program exec( ); Owner 18
i=getruid()
setuid(i);
-rw-r--r--
RUID 25
file
read/write
EUID 18
Owner 25
-rw-r--r--
read/write
RUID 25
file
EUID 25

42. Careful with Setuid ! Can do what owner of file is allowed to do
Be sure not to
Take action for untrusted user
Return secret data to untrusted user
Principle of least privilege
change EUID when root privileges no longer needed
Setuid scripts (bad idea)
Race conditions: begin executing setuid program; change contents of program before it loads and is executed