1. Coulometry and Electrogravimetry

2. Dynamic Electrochemical Methods of analysis Electrolysis Electrogravimetric and Coulometric Methods
For a cell to do any useful work or for an electrolysis to occur, a significant current must flow.
Whenever current flows, three factors act to decrease the output voltage of a galvanic cell or to increase the applied voltage needed for electrolysis.
These factors are called the ohmic potential, concentration overpotential (polarization), and activation overpotential.

3. Coulometry and Electrogravimetry
A potential is applied forcing a nonspontaneous chemical reaction to take place
How much voltage should be applied?
Eapplied = Eback + iR
Eback = voltage require to cancel out the normal forward reaction (galvanic cell reaction)
iR = iR drop. The work applied to force the nonspontaneous reaction to take place. R is the cell resistance
Eback = Ereversible (galvanic) + Overvoltage
Overvoltage: it is the extra potential that must be applied beyond what we predict from the Nernst equation

4. Ohmic Potential
The voltage needed to force current (ions) to flow through the cell is called the ohmic potential and is given by Ohm's law:
Eohmic = IR
where I is the current and R is the resistance of the cell.
In a galvanic cell at equilibrium, there is no ohmic potential because I = 0.
If a current is drawn from the cell, the cell voltage decreases because part of the free energy released by the chemical reaction is needed to overcome the resistance of the cell itself.
The voltage applied to an electrolysis cell must be great enough to provide the free energy for the chemical reaction and to overcome the cell resistance.
In the absence of any other effects, the voltage of a galvanic cell is decreased by IR, and the magnitude of the applied voltage in an electrolysis must be increased by IR in order for current to flow.

6. Overvoltage or overpotential
The electrochemical cell is polarized if its actual potential is different than that expected according to Nernst equation.
The extent of polarization is measured as overpotential 
 = Eapplied – Ereversible(equilib)
What are the sources of overpotential?

7. 1. Concentration overpotential (polarization)
This takes place when the concentration at the electrode surface is different than that in the bulk solution.
This behavior is observed when the rate of electrochemical reaction at the electrode surface is fast compared to the rate of diffusion of electroactive species from the solution bulk to the electrode surface

8. Example on concentration polarization
Cd Cd e

9. The anode potential depends on [Cd2 +]s, not [Cd2 +]o, because [[Cd2 +]s is the actual concentration at the electrode surface.
Reversing the electrode reaction to write it as a reduction, the anode potential is given by the equation
E(anode) = E°(anode) –( /2) log [Cd2+]s
If [Cd2 +]s = [Cd2+]o, the anode potential will be that expected from the bulk Cd2+ concentration.
If the current is flowing so fast that Cd2+ cannot escape from the region around the electrode as fast as it is made, [Cd2 +]s will be greater than [Cd2 +]o.
When [Cd2 +]s does not equal [Cd2 +]o, we say that concentration polarization exists.
The anode will become more positive and the
Cell voltage = E (cathode) ‑E (anode) will decrease.

10. the straight line shows the behavior expected
the straight line shows the behavior expected. When ions are not transported to or from an electrode as rapidly as they are consumed or created, we say that concentration polarization exists if only the ohmic potential (IR) affects the net cell voltage.

11. The deviation of the curve from the straight line at high currents is due to concentration polarization.
In a galvanic cell, concentration polarization decreases the voltage below the value expected in the absence of concentration polarization.
In electrolysis cells, the situation is reversed; reactant is depleted and product accumulates. Therefore the concentration polarization requires us to apply a voltage of greater magnitude (more negative) than that expected in the absence of polarization.
Concentration polarization gets worse as [Mn+] gets smaller.

12. Example on Concentration overpotential
Assume:

13. Factors that affect concentration polarization
Among the factors causing ions to move toward or away from the electrode are
diffusion,
convection,
electrostatic attraction or repulsion.
Raising the temperature increases the rate of diffusion and thereby decreases concentration polarization.
Mechanical stirring is very effective in transporting species through the cell.
Increasing ionic strength decreases the electrostatic forces between ions and the electrode.
These factors can all be used to affect the degree of polarization.
Also, the greater the electrode surface area, the more current can be passed without polarization.

14. How can we reduce the concentration overpotential?
Increase T
Increase stirring
Increase electrode surface area: more reaction takes place
Change ionic strength to increase or decrease attraction between electrode and reactive ion.

15. Activation Overpotential
Activation overpotential is a result of the activation energy barrier for the electrode reaction.
The faster you wish to drive an electrode reaction, the greater the overpotential that must be applied.
More overpotential is required to speed up an electrode reaction.

16. How to calculate the potential required to reverse a reaction

17. Example 1 on electrolysis
Assume that 99.99% of each will be quantitatively deposited
Then 0.01% (10-5 M) will be left in the solution
Given that:

20. Example 2
Suppose that a solution containing 0.20 M Cu2+ and 1.0 M H+ is electrolyzed to deposit Cu(s) on a Pt cathode and to liberate O2 at a Pt anode. Calculate the voltage needed for electrolysis. If the resistance of this cell is 0.44 ohm. Estimate the voltage needed to maintain a current of 2.0 A. Assume that the anode overpotential is 1.28 V and there is no concentration polarization.

22. A solution containing 0.1M Cu2+ and 0.1 M Sn2+ calculate:
Example 2
A solution containing 0.1M Cu2+ and 0.1 M Sn2+ calculate:
the potential at which Cu2+ starts deposition.
The potential ate which Cu2+ is completely deposited (99.99% deposition).
The potential at which Sn2+ starts deposition.
Would Sn2+ be reduced before the copper is completely deposited?
From the standard potentials given below we expect that Cu2+ be reduced more easily than Sn2+

23. Cu e-  Cu (s); Eo = V

24. Example 3

25. Electrogravimetry
In an electrogravimetric analysis, the analyte is quantitatively deposited as a solid on the cathode or anode.
The mass of the electrode directly measures the amount of analyte.
Not always practical because numerous materials can be reduced or oxidized and still not plated out on an electrode.
Electrogravimetry can be conducted with or
without a controlled potential
When No control
A fixed potential is set and the electrodeposition
is carried out
The starting potential must be initially high to
ensure complete deposition
The deposition will slow down as the reaction
proceeds

27. In practice, there may be other electroactive species that interfere by codeposition with the desired analyte.
Even the solvent (water) is electroactive, since it decomposes to H2 + 1/2O2 at a sufficiently high voltage.
Although these gases are liberated from the solution, their presence at the electrode surface interferes with deposition of solids.
Because of these complications, control of the electrode potential is an important feature of a successful electrogravimetric analysis.

28. Examples on electrogravimetry
Cu: is deposited from acidic solution using a Pt cathode
Ni : is deposited from a basic solution
Zn: is deposited from acidic citrate solution
Some metals can be deposited as metal complexes e.g., Ag, Cd, Au
Some metals are deposited as oxides on the anode e.g.,
Pb2+ as PbO2 and Mn2+ as MnO2

29. Coulometric Methods of Analysis
Coulometric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of quantity of electrical charge that passes through a solution during an electrochemical reaction. The principle of coulometric method of analysis is governed by Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
Faraday’s First laws of electrolysis
According to the first law, the mass of a substance liberated at the electrodes during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electrical charge (Q) that passed through the electrolyte. m ∝ Q
Total charge, Q, in coulombs, passed during an electrolysis is related to the amount of analyte by Faraday’s law
Q= N· F.n
Where Q is the amount of charge its unit is coulomb is equivalent to an A•s ; thus for a constant current, I, the charge, Q, is given as, Q= I · t
coulombs = amperes · seconds
The charge on an electron is × 10–19 coulombs.
where F is Faraday constant charge carried by one mole of electrons, F=6.023x1023 x × 10–19 = 96,487 C/mol and N is number of mole of analyte
 N = Q / n.F = I · t / n.F, as N=m/M.mass, so
where m is mass of analyte, M is molar mass, n, number of electron involved during reaction and I is the amount of current and t is the time in second
m = M n
i .t
96487 •

30. Special Features of coulometric methods
Coulometric methods give more accurate and precise results than classical methods since the electrical currents can be controlled and measured with utmost precision.
These methods are suited for both routine as well as rare analyses which involve electrolytic method of determination.
Coulometric titrations are more popular and have the special advantage in the sense that the tedious steps of preparation, storage and handling of standard titrants are avoided.
Titrations which cannot be performed by conventional methods can be easily performed coulometrically. Titrations of high hazardous materials, titrations involving unstable or difficulty prepared titrants such as bromine, tin(II), titanium(III), chromium(II), silver(II) etc. and titrations in molten salts can be performed.
In situ generation of titrants, for example electrolytic generation of iodine used to estimate hydroquinone, ascorbic acid, antimony(III), electrolytically generated bromine used to estimate organic substances like oxine have been found to be the most satisfactory intermediates for the estimation of several organic compounds.
Constant current coulometry has widely been used than the controlled potential coulometry since the former is faster and requires simpler instrumentation and less expensive.
Controlled potential coulometry is a quite sensitive method and has selectivity.

31. Types of Coulometry
Controlled potential coulometry: constant potential is applied to electrochemical cell
Controlled current coulometry: constant current is passed through the electrochemical cell
Faraday’s law:
Total charge, Q, in coulombs passed during electrolysis is related to the absolute amount of analyte:
Q = nFN
n = #moles of electrons transferred per mole of analyte
F = Faradays constant = C mol-1
N = number of moles of analyte
Coulomb = C = Ampere X sec = A.s

32. For a constant current, i: Q = ite ; (te = electrolysis time)
For controlled potential coulometry: the current varies with time:
Q =
What do we measure in coulometry?
Current and time. Q & N are then calculated according
to one of the above equations
Coulometry requires 100% current efficiency. What does this mean?
All the current must result in the analyte’s oxidation or reduction

33. Controlled potential coulometry (Potentiostatic coulometry)
The working electrode will be kept at constant potential that allows for the analyt’s reduction or oxidation without simultaneously reducing or oxidizing other species in the solution
The current flowing through the cell is proportional to the analyt’s concnetration
With time the analyte’s concentration as well as the current will decrease
The quantity of electricity is measured with an electronic integrator.

34. Controlled potential coulometry

35. Controlled potential coulometry
Instrumentation
The instrumentation for potentiostatic coulometry consists of a potentiostat (to
maintain a constant potential), an electrolysis cell, a chemical coulometer or an
integrating device for determining the number of coulombs and placed in series withthe working electrode. The chemical coulometer such as hydrogen-oxygen
coulometer/silver coulometer can be used to measure the number of coulombs
(quantity of electricity).
Cell Assembly
The cell assembly consists of a platinum gauze working electrode, a platinum wire
counter electrode and a saturated calomel electrode as the reference electrode. The counter electrode is separated from the test solution by a porous tube containing the same supporting electrolyte

36. Controlled potential coulometry
Instrumentation
Sometimes a mercury cathode is used instead of a platinum gauze electrode. This cathode is useful for separating the easily reducible elements during an analysis. For example, copper, nickel, cobalt, silver and cadmium are easily separated from ions such as aluminium, titanium, alkali metals and phosphates. The precipitated elements dissolve in mercury and form amalgams.
Potentiostat
A potentiostat is an electronic device which maintains the potential of the working
electrode at a constant level relative to a reference electrode.

37. Controlled potential coulometry
Instrumentation
Integrators
Most of the modern apparatus for potentiostatic coulometry employ integrators to
determine the number of coulombs required to complete an electrolysis.
Efficient stirring is important for controlled potential electrolysis, since all analyte
species must be swept up to the electrode surface, so that the electrochemical reaction is completed. Besides stirring, the ratio of the electrode surface to solution volume is another requirement of the experiment. This ratio plays a role in determining the time needed for complete electrolysis, since the electrical current will be directly proportional to electrode area, A and also directly proportional to the concentration, c, of the analyte.

38. Controlled potential coulometry
Applications
i) Inorganic Analysis
Controlled potential coulometric methods have widespread use in the determination of
several metal ions. As many as 55 elements of the periodic table can be determined by
the cathodic reduction of metal ions to metallic state. Most of the metals (about two
dozen element) can form amalgams with mercury, and hence controlled potential
coulometry with mercury cathode is usually preferred.
ii) Analysis of radioactive materials
The technique is widely adopted for the determination of uranium and pluotinum and
thus finds extensive use in the nuclear energy field. Reduction of UO + 2
2 to U4+ can be carried out in H2SO4 medium with a mercury pool cathode (− 0.6 V vs. SCE). Samples containing 7 – 75 mg of uranium have been analysed with an accuracy of ± 0.l %.
iii) Micro analysis
Controlled potential coulometry is more popular than the electrogravimetric methods
since it avoids the final step of weighing the product. The tedious process of drying
and weighing the electrode after each elecltrolysis is avoided. This technique is
especially useful for the determination of small amounts of analyte (0.01 – l mg) with
an accuracy of (± 0.5 %).

39. Controlled potential coulometry
Applications
iv) Multistep controlled potential electrolysis
Determination of several metal ions in the same solution is possible with controlled potential electrolysis using mercury pool cathode. A sample solution containing several metal ions such as Cu2+, Bi3+,Pb2+,and Zn2+ can be analysed by controlled potential analysis. When the cathode potential is controlled at about vs. SCE, Cu2+ is reduced to Cu0. When the current decays to zero, then the potential can be controlled so that Bi3+ can be reduced to Bi0. Subsequently by controlling the potentials, Pb2+ can be determined as Pb0
and Zn2+ as Zn. A sample of brass/bronze which contains Cu2+, Zn2+, and Pb2+ can be analysed by this technique.
v) Continuous monitoring of gas streams
Determination of trace level concentration of oxygen in a gas stream can be done by controlled potential analysis. The cell consists of a porous silver cathode and a cadmium anode. The reactions are
The porous silver cathode serves to break up the incoming gas into small bubbles, wherein the reduction of oxygen takes place quantitatively within the pores. The hydroxyl ions formed during reduction reacts with the cadmium anode and forms a Cd(OH)2(s) product.

40. Controlled potential coulometry
Applications
vi) Electrolytic determination of organic compounds:
Controlled potential coulometry offers a new step for the electrolytic determination of organic compounds. Trichloroacetic acid and picric acid are quantitatively reduced at a mercury cathode. Coulometric methods permit the analysis of these compounds with an accuracy of 0.1%.
vii) Elctrolytic synthesis of new organic compounds :
Synthesis of new species and novel chemical compounds are possible. No chemical reagents are required since electron itself is the reagent for carrying out these reactions. No contamination of the products takes place.
viii) Determination of n-values of the reaction:
Controlled potential coulometry can be used to determine n values of the reactions. Determination of n values offers a route to deduce the kinetics and mechanism of the
overall reactions. Picric acid is reduced at a mercury pool cathode, in which n value of
the reaction was found to be, l8. The reaction product is identified to be
triaminophenol.

41. Coulometric Titration (Controlled-Current Coulometry)
Controlled-current coulometry maintains a constant current throughout the reaction period. Here, an excess of a redox buffer substance must be added in such a way that the potential does not cause any undesirable reaction. That means the product of the electrolysis of the redox buffer must react quantitatively with the unknown substance to be determined.
Coulometric titrations need an electrolytically generated titrant that reacts stoichiometrically with the analyte to be determined. As in controlled-current coulometry, 100% current efficiency is required. The current is accurately fixed at a constant value and the quantity of electricity can be calculated by the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds) i.e. Q=I x t using endpoint detection.
In principle, any endpoint detection system that fits chemically can be used; for example, chemical indicators (color change), and potentiometric, amperometric or conductometric procedures.

42. Coulometric Titration Instrumentation
For coulometric titrations the instrumentation consists of a titrator (constant-current source, integrator) and a cell. As the constant-current source, an electronically controlled amperostat is preferably used. The integrator measures the product of current and time (i.e., the number of coulombs). The electrolysis cell, filled with the solution from which the titrant will be generated electrolytically and the solution to be titrated (analyzed), is schematically shown in Figure.
The generator electrode, at which the reagent is formed, possesses a large surface area (e.g., a rectangular strip of
platinum). The auxiliary electrode (e.g., a platinum wire) is in contact with an appropriate electrolyte of higher concentration than the solution to be titrated. It is isolated from the analyte by a sintered disk or some other porous media. This is required to avoid the interference of additional products generated at the second electrode. To circumvent these limitations of internal generation, an external generator cell is often used.

43. Coulometric Titration Applications
Typical applications of coulometric titrations are neutralization titrations, precipitation and complex formation titrations, and oxidation-reduction titrations. Neutralization titrations can be employed for both weak and strong acids and bases. The former can be performed with hydroxide ions generated at a platinum anode by the reaction:.
the latter one with hydrogen ions by the reaction:
A working (generator) electrode of silver as anode offers the determination of Cl–, Br–, I–, and mercaptans in solution(s). For bromide, the reaction becomes:

44. Advantages of Coulometric Titration
Coulometric titrations possess some practical advantages:
no standard solutions are required and unstable reagents can be generated or consumed immediately,
small amounts of titrants can be electrically quantified with high accuracy, pretitration is possible, and the method can be readily adapted to automatic remote control. Thus, with respect to controlled-potential coulometry a wider field of practical applicaions exists. Often, automatic titrators for multipurpose and single analysis employ potentiometric endpoint detection. Examples are sulfur dioxide monitors and water titrators (Karl Fischer).

45. Controlled‑current coulometry, has two advantages over controlled‑potential coulometry.
First, using a constant current leads to more rapid analysis since the current does not decrease over time. Thus, a typical analysis time for controlled current coulometry is less than 10 min, as opposed to approximately 30‑60 min for controlled‑potential coulometry.
Second, with a constant current the total charge is simply the product of current and time. A method for integrating the current‑time curve, therefore, is not necessary.

46. Experimental problems with constant current coulometry
Using a constant current does present two important experimental problems that must be solved if accurate results are to be obtained.
First, as electrolysis occurs the analyte's concentration and, therefore, the current due to its oxidation or reduction steadily decreases.
To maintain a constant current the cell potential must change until another oxidation or reduction reaction can occur at the working electrode.
Unless the system is carefully designed, these secondary reactions will produce a current efficiency of less than 100%.
Second problem is the need for a method of determining when the analyte has been exhaustively electrolyzed.
In controlled‑potential coulometry this is signaled by a decrease in the current to a constant background or residual current.
In controlled‑current coulometry, a constant current continues to flow even when the analyte has been completely oxidized or reduced. A suitable means of determining the end‑point of the reaction, te, is needed.

47. Maintaining Current Efficiency
Why changing the working electrode's potential can lead to less than 100% current efficiency?
let's consider the coulometric analysis for Fe2+ based on its oxidation to Fe3+ at a Pt working electrode in 1 M H2S04.
Fe2+(aq) = Fe3+(aq) + e ‑
The diagram for this system is shown. Initially the potential of the working electrode remains nearly constant at a level near the standard‑state potential for the Fe 3+/Fe 2+ redox couple.
As the concentration of Fe 2+ decreases, the potential of the working electrode shifts toward more positive values until another oxidation reaction can provide the necessary current.
Thus, in this case the potential eventually increases to a level at which the oxidation of H2O occurs.
6H2O(l)  O2(g) + 4H3O+(aq) + 4e

48. Since the current due to the oxidation of H2O does not contribute to the oxidation of Fe2+, the current efficiency of the analysis is less than 100%.
To maintain a 100% current efficiency the products of any competing oxidation reactions must react both rapidly and quantitatively with the remaining Fe2+.
This may be accomplished, for example, by adding an excess of Ce3+ to the analytical solution.
When the potential of the working electrode shifts to a more positive potential, the first species to be oxidized is Ce3+.
Ce3+(aq) = Ce4+(aq) + e‑
The Ce4+ produced at the working electrode rapidly mixes with the solution, where it reacts with any available Fe2+.

49. Ce4+(aq) + Fe2+(aq) = Fe 3+(aq) + Ce3+(aq)
Combining these reactions gives the desired overall reaction
Fe 2+(aq) = Fe3+(aq) + e-
Thus, a current efficiency of 100% is maintained.
Since the concentration of Ce3+ remains at its initial level, the potential of the working electrode remains constant as long as any Fe 2+ is present.
This prevents other oxidation reactions, such as that for H2O, from interfering with the analysis.
A species, such as Ce3+ which is used to maintain 100% current efficiency is called a Mediator.

50. End Point Determination
Adding a mediator solves the problem of maintaining 100% current efficiency, but does not solve the problem of determining when the analyte’s electrolysis is complete. Using the same example, once all the Fe2+ has been oxidized current continues to flow as a result of the oxidation of Ce3+ and, eventually, the oxidation of H2O. What is needed is a means of indicating when the oxidation of Fe2+ is complete. In this respect it is convenient to treat a controlled-current coulometric analysis as if electrolysis of the analyte occurs only as a result of its reaction with the mediator.
Thus, the same end points that are used in redox titrimetry such as visual indicators, and potentiometric and conductometric measurements, may be used to signal the end point of a controlled-current coulometric analysis. For example, ferroin may be used to provide a visual end point for the Ce3+ mediated coulometric analysis for Fe2+.

51. Instrumentation
Controlled‑current coulometry normally is carried out using a galvanostat and an electrochemical cell consisting of a working electrode and a counter electrode.
The working electrode is constructed from Pt, is also called the generator electrode since it is where the mediator reacts to generate the species reacting with the analyte.
The counter electrode is isolated from the analytical solution by a salt bridge or porous frit to prevent its electrolysis products from reacting with the analyte.
Alternatively, oxidizing or reducing the mediator can be carried out externally, and the appropriate products flushed into the analytical solution.

52. Method for the external generation of oxidizing and reducing
agents in coulomtric titration

53. The other necessary instrumental component for controlled‑current coulometry is an accurate clock for measuring the electrolysis time, te, and a switch for starting and stopping the electrolysis.
Analog clocks can read time to the nearest ±0.01 s, but the need to frequently stop and start the electrolysis near the end point leads to a net uncertainty of ±0.1 s.
Digital clocks provide a more accurate measurement of time, with errors of ±1 ms being possible.
The switch must control the flow of current and the clock, so that an accurate determination of the electrolysis time is possible.

54. Quantitative calculations Example 1
The purity of a sample of Na2S2O3 was determined by a coulometric redox titration using I‑ as a mediator, and 13- as the "titrant“. A sample weighing g is transferred to a 100‑mL volumetric flask and diluted to volume with distilled water. A 10.00‑mL portion is transferred to an electrochemical cell along with 25 ml, of 1 M KI, 75 mL of a pH 7.0 phosphate buffer, and several drops of a starch indicator solution. Electrolysis at a constant current of mA required s to reach the starch indicator end point. Determine the purity of the sample.

56. Example 2
A ‑g sample of tetrachloropicolinic acid, C6HNO2CI4, is dissolved in distilled water, transferred to a 1000‑ml, volumetric flask, and diluted to volume. An exhaustive controlled‑potential electrolysis of a 10.00‑mL portion of this solution at a spongy silver cathode requires C of charge. What is the value of n for this reduction reaction?