1. Facilitating Psychological Growth and Development
PART VII
Facilitating Psychological Growth and Development
Chapter 22—Children’s Psychological Development Through Sport
Chapter 23—Aggression in Sport
Chapter 24—Character Development and Sportspersonship

2. Children’s Psychological Development Through Sport
CHAPTER 22
Children’s Psychological Development Through Sport

3. Session Outline The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology
Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete?
Why Children Participate in Sport
Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Role of Friends in Youth Sport
(continued)

4. Session Outline Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Role of Parents

5. The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology
Some of the most important implications of sport psychology are found in the children’s sport arena, where participants are plentiful and are highly involved.

6. Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete?
So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the United States).
Children are intensely involved in youth sport.
Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child’s life (age 12).
Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed.

7. Why Children Participate in Youth Sport
Children have different reasons for participating in sport, and boys’ reasons vary from girls’.
(See table 22.1 on p. 494 of text.)

8. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Participation statistics
Peak participation occurs between the ages of 10 and 13 years.
For every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 to 4 quit before the season ends.

9. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Motives for withdrawal
Major reason: “Other things to do”
Some negative reasons (e.g., “Not as good as I wanted to be”; “Boredom”; “Didn’t like the pressure”) cited by a significant minority of children

10. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
The Importance of Perceived Competence
Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist.

11. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport

12. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program, but enter other sports.
Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation.
Sport-general dropouts are a special concern.

13. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
KEY—
Understand underlying motives for withdrawal.

14. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Summary
Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g., to have fun, learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation.
Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.
(continued)

15. Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
Summary
Although most children withdraw because of change of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., lack of fun, pressure).
Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child’s need to feel worthy.

16. Strategies for Structuring Sport Situations to Meet the Needs of Young Athletes
Coaches can enhance motivation by structuring environments to meet specific needs.
(See table 22.2 on p. 496 of text.)

17. Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes
Implications for practice
Enhance perceived competence—teach young athletes to define success as exceeding their own goals, not simply winning.
Keep participation and withdrawal statistics.
(continued)

18. Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes
Implications for practice
When children discontinue, rigorously analyze why they are withdrawing from sport.
Is the child interested in another sport?
Is withdrawal permanent or temporary?
Did the child have a say in the decision?
What are effects on long-term welfare?

19. Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport
Companionship
Spending time or “hanging out” together
Pleasant play association
Enjoying being around one’s friends
Enhancement of self-esteem
Having friends say things or take actions that boost one’s self-esteem
(continued)

20. Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport
Help and guidance
Providing assistance in learning sport skills as well as general assistance, such as in school
Prosocial behavior
Saying and doing things that conform to social convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things
Intimacy
Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds
(continued)

21. Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport
Emotional support
Expressions and feeling of concern for one another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree)
Conflict resolution
Ability of friends to resolve conflicts
Attractive personal qualities
Positive characteristics such as personality or physical features

22. Negative Role of Friends in Youth Sport
Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments)
Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered)
Betrayal
Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact)

23. Role of Friends in Youth Sport
KEY—
Peer relations affect motivation for physical activity.

24. Role of Friends in Youth Sport
1. In sport settings, provide time for children to be with friends and to make new friends.
2. Encourage positive peer reinforcement.
3. Emphasize teamwork, foster cohesion, and emphasize the pursuit of group “team” goals.

25. Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Are young athletes placed under too much stress?
No, the vast majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are).

26. Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport

27. in Children’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout
in Children’s Competitive Sport
Is state anxiety heightened in young athletes?
High stress (state anxiety) levels are relatively rare, but affect 2.5 million children in specific situations.
Stress among elite junior competitors is caused by fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy.
Children at risk for heightened state anxiety exhibit certain personal characteristics.

28. in Children’s Competitive Sport
Stress and Burnout
in Children’s Competitive Sport
KEY—
Excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation.

29. Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety
High trait anxiety
Low self-esteem
Low performance expectancies relative to team
Low self-performance expectations
Frequent worries about failure
(continued)

30. Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety
Frequent worries about adult expectations and evaluation by others.
Less perceived fun
Less satisfaction with their performance, regardless of winning or losing
Perception that participation is important to parents
Outcome goal orientation and low perceived ability

31. Situational Sources of Stress
Defeat Versus Victory
Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning.

32. Situational Sources of Stress
Event Importance
The more importance placed on a contest, the more state anxiety experienced by participants.

33. Situational Sources of Stress
Sport Type
Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.

34. Stress-Induced Burnout
Burnout is a special case of sport withdrawal in which a young athlete discontinues sport involvement in response to chronic stress.
Characteristics of burnout include one-dimensional self-definitions and little or no control in decision making.

35. Factors Associated With Burnout in Young Athletes
Very high self- and other-imposed expectations
Win-at-all-costs attitude
Parental pressure
Long repetitive practices with little variety
Inconsistent coaching practices
(continued)

36. Factors Associated With Burnout in Young Athletes
Overuse injuries from excessive practice
Excessive time demands
High travel demands
Love from others displayed on the basis of winning and losing
Perfectionism

37. Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Practical implications
Develop confidence and a constructive attitude toward mistakes.
Use concrete physical strategies (e.g., stress bag to put worries in).
Use fun strategies (e.g., jelly belly, spaghetti toes relaxation).
(continued)

38. Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
Practical implications
Use simple strategies (e.g., change channels).
Vary approaches to the same exercise.
Individualize approaches to the child’s interests.
Remain positive and optimistic; use role models (e.g., Michael Jordan).

39. Intensive Training and Elite Sport for Children
Phases of athletic talent development
Entry or initial phase
Investment phase
Elite performance excellence phase
Excellence maintenance phase

40. Intensive Training and Elite Sport for Children
Key findings:
Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind.
Most champion athletes are exposed to active lifestyles and play multiple sports as children.
Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement.
To optimize talent, young athletes should not spe-cialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.

41. Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
KEY—
Children have special coaching needs, different from the needs of adults.

42. What the Research Says About Coaching Children
Smith, Smoll, and Curtis’ (1979) classic research notes that a coach’s instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent instruction and encouragement correlate with a player’s self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes.

43. What the Research Says About Coaching Children
Learning a positive approach to coaching results in lower player dropout rates (5% compared with 26% for untrained coaches).

44. Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Implications for practice
1. Catch kids doing things right and give them plenty of praise.
2. Give praise sincerely.
3. Develop realistic expectations.
4. Reward effort as much as outcome.
5. Focus on teaching and practicing skills (maximize participation and activity).
(continued)

45. Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Implications for practice
6. Modify skills and activities so they are developmentally appropriate.
7. Modify rules to maximize action and participation.
8. Reward correct technique, not just outcome.
9. Use a positive “sandwich” approach when you correct errors.
(continued)

46. Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
Implications for practice
10. Create an environment that reduces fear of trying new skills.
11. Be enthusiastic.

47. Parental Roles
Parental enjoyment of physical activity is related to parental encouragement and a child’s perceived competence and participation.
Parental support buffers the adverse stressful effects that youth players experience.
The goal orientations of parent and child are significantly related.
Parents can play a highly positive or a highly negative role in the youth sport experience.

48. Parental Roles
KEYS —
Educate parents about about parent responsibilities and the sport parent code of conduct.
Appreciate the tricky business of parental support.

49. Sport Parent Responsibilities
1. Encourage your children to play sports, but don’t pressure them. Let your child choose to play—and quit—if she or he wants.
2. Understand what your child wants from sport and provide a supportive atmosphere for achieving those goals.
3. Set limits on your child’s participation in sport. You need to determine when your child is physically and emotionally ready to play and to ensure that conditions for playing are safe.
(continued)

50. Sport Parent Responsibilities
4. Make sure the coach is qualified to guide your child through the sport experience.
5. Keep winning in perspective, and help your child do the same.
6. Help your child set realistic performance goals.
7. Help your child understand the valuable lessons sport can teach.
8. Help your child meet his or her responsibilities to the team and the coach.
(continued)

51. Sport Parent Responsibilities
9. Discipline your child appropriately when necessary.
10. Turn your child over to the coach at practices and games—don’t meddle or coach from the stands.
11. Supply the coach with information regarding any allergies or special health conditions your child has. Make sure your child takes any necessary medications to games and practices.

52. Sport Parent Code of Conduct
1. Remain in the spectator area during games.
2. Don’t advise the coach on how to coach.
3. Don’t make derogatory comments to coaches, officials, or parents of either team.
4. Don’t try to coach your child during the contest.
5. Don’t drink alcohol at contests or come to a contest having drunk too much.
(continued)

53. Sport Parent Code of Conduct
6. Cheer for your child’s team.
7. Show interest, enthusiasm, and support for your child.
8. Be in control of your emotions.
9. Help when asked by coaches or officials.
10. Thank coaches, officials, and other volunteers who conduct the event.