1. Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

2. The Law of Effect (Thorndike)
Any behavior that has a desirable effect tends to be repeated, whereas any behavior that has negative effects tends not to be repeated.
Thorndike’s research focused on instrumental behaviors (behavior that required an organism to do something, solve a problem. He put cats into a puzzle box, wooden crate with a door that would open when a concealed lever was moved in the right way. Only one behavior leads to exit, and it’s trial-and-error learning.
Different from classical conditioning, where the UCS occurred on every trial no matter what the animal did. But here, the behavior of the animal determines what happens next.

3. BF Skinner – Operant Conditioning
Used Skinner box (operant conditioning chamber)
Study of learning focused on
Reinforcers – any stimulus/event that INCREASES the likelihood of behavior.
Punishers – any stimulus/event that DECREASES the likelihood of behavior.

4. BF Skinner – Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, the word “positive” means that something starts or is added (it does NOT mean “good”).
The word “negative” means that something is taken away or stopped. (It does NOT mean “bad”).

5. Two Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: response is strengthened because it’s followed by presentation of a desirable stimulus
Negative reinforcement: response is strengthened because it’s followed by removal of an aversive stimulus
Give an A for a good grade. Give a cookie for good behavior.
“Scream until Dad stops the car.” Dairy Queen ad
Replace batteries to stop the smoke alarm.
Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is turned on; driver must put on safety belt in order to eliminate irritating buzz (Gredler, 1992)  the buzz is a negative reinforcer for putting on the seat-belt.
Feigning a stomach ache in order to avoiding school (Gredler, 1992)  school as negative reinforcer for feigning stomach aches.
Rushing home in the winter to get out of the cold (Weiten, 1992). Fanning oneself to escape from the heat (Zimbardo, 1992).  Cold weather as negative reinforcer for walking home (the colder the faster you walk..), and heat sa negative reinforcer for fanning.
Cleaning the house to get rid of disgusting mess (Weiten, 1992), or cleaning the house to get rid of your mother's nagging (Bootzin, et al , 1991; Leahy & Harris, 1989).  Nagging/Mess as negative reinforcer to cleaning.
Studying for an exam to avoid getting a poor grade (Bootzin & Acocella, 1980).  Low grade as a negative reinforcer for studying (but.. a high grade is a positive reinforcer for studying at the same time)
Taking aspirin to relieve headache (Bootzin & Acocella, 1980; Buskist & Gerbing, 1990; Gerow, 1992).  Good example: headache as negative reinforcer to taking medication.
Removing a stone that has lodged inside the shoe while walking (Pettijohn, 1992; Roediger, Capaldi, Paris, & Polivy, 1991).  Pain as negative reinforcer to stopping to take off your shoe..
Prisoners try to break out of jail to escape the aversiveness of being locked up (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Running from the building when the fire alarm sounds (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).  Fire alarm as negative reinforcer for leaving building.
Smoking in order to reduce a negative emotional state (Baron, 1992).  Negative emotional state as negative reinforcer to smoking.
Turning down the volume of a very loud radio (Roediger, Capaldi, Paris, & Polivy, 1991).
Changes in sexual behavior (e.g., wearing condoms) to avoid AIDS (Gerow, 1992).

6. Two Types of Punishment
Positive punishment: aversive event following a response; decreases the tendency to make the response
Negative punishment: removal of a desirable stimulus following a response; decreases the tendency to make the response
Spanking for bad behavior.
Expulsion for drug use.
Taking iPhone or car away as punishment.
Kicking someone off group chat. (taking away positive chat).

7. Reinforcement/Punishment Chart
Reinforcement (behavior increases)
Punishment (behavior decreases)
Positive (something added)
Positive reinforcement (Something good added increases behavior)
Positive punishment (Something unpleasant added decreases behavior)
Negative (something taken away)
Negative reinforcement (Something bad taken away increases behavior)
Negative punishment
(Something good taken away decreases behavior)

8. Identify which operant conditioning principle each picture represents.
Putting on sunscreen is negative reinforcement – taking away sunburn.
Time out is negative punishment.
Scolding dog is positive punishment.
Petting dog for good behavior is positive reinforcement.

9. Reinforcement versus Punishment?
In general, reinforcement is more effective than punishment.
Punishment tells you what NOT to do, but doesn’t always tell you what to do.
Reinforcement lets you know exactly what to do.

10. Immediate versus Delayed?
Consequences—good or bad—must be immediate
More delay = less effectiveness
So when kids act out, don’t wait until you get home. Punish immediately. If you absolutely cannot, be sure to explain exactly what will happen and then.
With animals, don’t wait. They cannot make a connection over time. So if your puppy pees on the rug or gets in the trash, punish immediately or not at all.
This is why it’s hard to lose weight or quit smoking or break any habit. The delay in reinforcement is hard for us to process.

11. Premack Principle
What’s an effective reinforcer for one person might not be an effective reinforcer for another
Example: Giving kids M&Ms to turn knobs; sometimes turning knobs is more fun than getting M&Ms.
Very important to find the right “carrot”.

12. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcer: something that is innately reinforcing since birth (food, comfort, shelter, warmth)
Secondary reinforcer: derive effectiveness from associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning (money = food, shelter)

13. Shaping
Learning results from reinforcement of successive steps (approximations) to a final behavior.
Person or animal receives a small reward for each small step toward a final goal, rather than just a reward for the target response.
Good for teaching behaviors that don’t come naturally.
Example: animal training.

14. Generalization & Discrimination
These are similar to what they are in classical conditioning.
Through rewards and punishments, we can determine how to behave appropriately in different context.
Difference: these controlled by rewards or punishments instead of UCS/CS pairings.
Research shows that even rats and pigeons can be taught to discriminate between Bach vs. Stravinsky and then generalize their responses to music by similar composers. Similar findings with pigeons and art pieces.
Crowd-appropriate behavior (generalize to all sporting events, but not the library).
Kids take their clothes off…get punished for doing it in public, get rewarded in private.
Teachers determine appropriate classroom behavior, student are able to discriminate.

15. Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery follows the same pattern as it did in classical conditioning.
Extinction – can happen when reinforcements stop, but takes a lot longer DUE TO…

16. Schedules of Reinforcement
Pattern of reinforcement is important.
Continuous: you get a reinforcement/reward every time you perform the behavior
Partial (Intermittent): you get a reinforcement after only a certain amount of time has passed (interval schedule) or after a certain number of responses (ratio).
In classical conditioning, the sheer number of learning trials is important. In operant conditioning, the pattern of reinforcements is crucial.

17. Fixed Interval Provides reinforcement after a set period of time
Little responding right after the presentation of reinforcement, then behavior picks up as time interval draws to a close.
Cramming for exam
Sale every Tuesday.
Getting a paycheck at the end of the week (Baron, 1992; Bernstein, Roy, Srull, & Wickens, 1991; Leahy & Harris, 1989; McConnell, 1989)
Looking at your watch during a lecture until end of a lecture (Catania, 1992).
Bill-passing behavior on the part of congress. This behavior has been shown to increase as the recess period approaches (Weisberg & Waldrop as cited in Houston, 1976).
Checking oven to see if cookies are done, when cooking time is known (Gray, 1991).
Going to the cafeteria to see if the next meal is already available (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Picking up the paper in the morning after it has been delivered at the same time every day (Peterson, 1991).
Behavior in a scalloped pattern.

18. Fixed Ratio
Provides reinforcement after a specific number of desired responses.
Examples:
Getting paid every time you sell 5 magazine subscriptions.
Free pastry when you buy 10 coffees.
Continuous is a fixed ratio (every time).
Frequent flyer program: getting a free flight after acumulating x number of flight miles.
Factory worker paid on piece work (Bernstein, Roy, Srull, & Wickens, 1991; Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, & Hall, 1991). Paying on commission (Gredler, 1992) or getting a bonus for every x number of items sold (Weiten, 1992).
Mailman must visit the same number of mail boxes each day in order to go home (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Going up a staircase, you must go up the same number of stairs to get to the landing (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Teenager is paid by the job (e.g., amount of work completed) will probably mow more lawns than one who is paid by the hour.

19. Variable Interval Schedule
Behavior reinforced after average time elapsed since last reinforcement
Radio giveaways (1 per hour), but could be at the beginning of one hour and end of another.
Get allowance once a week for completing chores, but you don’t know which day.
Surprise quizzes (Carlson, 1990; Gerow, 1992; Gleitman, 1981; Pettijohn, 1992; Rathus, 1990).
Speed traps on highway (Gleitman, 1981)
Calling a friend and getting no answer or getting a busy signal because he is always on the phone. Some variable time will elapse until the call is reinforced by an answer (Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, & Hall, 1991; Crooks & Stein, 1991; Catania, 1992; Gray, 1991; Peterson, 1991; Pettijohn, 1992)
Fishing: a fish may be caught at intervals of approximately every two minutes; every hour; or every two days! (Carlson, 1990; Crooks & Stein, 1991; Houston, 1976)
Mail-checking behavior assuming that mailperson comes at irregular intervals (Myers, 1992) (or in !).
Waiting for a taxi cab.
Random drug testing; worker refrains from taking drugs (Baron,1992).

20. Variable Ratio Schedule
Provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of desired responses
Slot machines
Fishing
Highly Resistant to Extinction.
Called the partial reinforcement effect.
Slot machines at a gambling casino (Baron, 1992; Bernstein, Roy, Srull, & Wickens, 1991; Carlson, 1990; Crooks & Stein, 1991; Gerow, 1992)
Using drugs to escape withdrawal symptoms (Gredler, 1992)
Fly fishing: casting and reeling back several times before catching a fish (Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, & Hall, 1991; Weiten, 1992).
Signaling while hitchiking (Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, & Hall, 1991).
Buying lottery tickets (Pettijohn, 1992).
Sports games: e.g., variable number of strokes to finish a hole of golf (Baron, 1992); variable number of swings to hit the baseball; variable number of throws to get the basketball in the hoop; variable number of throws to get a strike in bowling (Domjan & Burkhard, 1993).
Each time a custodian cleans a room, a certain amount of cleaning will be necessary, however, the amount varies from day to day and even room to room (Domjan & Burkhar, 1993).
Playing Bingo (Gray, 1991).

21. Summary of Schedules
Ratio schedules—faster response rates (higher slopes) than interval schedules because number of responses, not passage of times, determines reinforcement.
Variable schedules—steadier response rates (smoother lines) than fixed schedules because people don’t know when their payoff will be.

23. Superstitious Behavior
When behaviors are reinforced randomly, and people perceive a link between behavior and reinforcement.
Using your lucky bat
Wearing a certain shirt on game days

24. Behavior Modification
Applying classical & operant conditioning principles to teach desirable behavior and eliminate undesirable behavior.
School
Work
Parenting
Self
Interpersonal Relationships
Token Economies - A form of behavior modification in which people earn secondary reinforcers such as tickets or wooden tokens that they can then exchange for something else that they want (treats or privileges).

25. Is Behaviorism Always the Best Strategy?
Extrinsic Motivation
Behaving in ways that gain rewards or avoid punishment.
Intrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Rewarding behavior that is intrinsically motivated can actually backfire and result in decreased enjoyment/performance of the behavior. – OVERJUSTIFICATION EFFECT

26. Additional Practice
Antonio drives 70 miles an hour on Hixson Pike and gets a speeding ticket.
Audrey lets her dog out so she won’t have to listen to his whimpering.
Think about behavior and consequences.
Positive Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
Classical Conditioning
When Cindy and Max fell in love, they listened constantly to “Beautiful” by Bazzi. Although several years have passed, they each experience a warm, romantic feeling when they hear the song.

27. Additional Practice
Alien Weaponry is a band who is gaining in popularity. They begin their US tour featuring many new unreleased songs, which draw silence from their fans, who want to hear songs they know. The same fans cheer wildly when they hear familiar songs. Gradually, Alien Weaponry reduce the number of new songs they play and start playing more of the old standbys.
Negative punishment and positive reinforcement.

28. Additional Practice
For nearly 20 years, Ralph has worked as a machinist in the same factory. His new foreman is never satisfied with his work and criticizes him constantly. After a few weeks of heavy criticism, Ralph experiences anxiety whenever he arrives at work. He starts calling in sick more and more frequently to evade the anxiety.
Classical conditioning, then negative reinforcement.

29. Additional Practice
Sharma constantly complains about minor aches and pains to obtain sympathy from colleagues at work. Three co-workers who share an office with her decide to ignore her complaints instead of responding with sympathy. Sharma eventually stops complaining.
Extinction