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Social Psychology Modules 74-80

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1 Social Psychology Modules 74-80
McElhaney

2 “Humans are social Animals” The Study of Human interaction
Branch of Psych that analyzes how behavior is influenced by presence of others “Presence + Behavior of other people affect our own behavior.” Studies how we behave, think, feel in Social Situations. Based on the concept of an Attribute: the cause of behavior

3 Social Psychology Defined
Scientific study of how individuals behave, think, feel in social situations Bernstein Social Cognition: “The scientific study of how people’s thoughts and feelings influence their behavior toward others and How behavior of others influence people's own thoughts, feelings and behavior.” *(The pressure of others) Includes: Values Behavior Patterns Expectations

4 Attribution Attribution= is a cause for behavior
Attribute- (verb) place cause through observation of others Inferences/judgments about causes of behavior

5 Attributional Theory We tend to ascribe or attribute causes of behavior to: Situational Attribution/External causes: outside a person Dispositional Attribution/Internal causes: inside a person

6 What should one consider when making attributions?
Factors of Attribution Actor: Who is it? Object: What is action directed towards? Setting: Social or physical environment Consistency: little changes on multiple occasions Distinctiveness: Behavior that occurs under specific circumstances.

7 Self-Serving Bias We have a tendency to attribute our own bad behavior to situational factors We also have a tendency to attribute bad behavior of others to dispositional factors (example of poverty) Actor-Observer Bias: (I vs. They) As actors- we find external explanations for our own behavior. As observers- we attribute behavior of others’ wants, motives and personality traits

8 Errors in Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error:
“We make mistakes – to overestimate the impact of the situation or the personality traits in explaining behavior.”

9 Attitudes Is the tendency to think feel or act positively or negatively toward objects in our environment “Attitudes affects our actions.”

10 Forming Attitudes Learned- primary Social Learning and Modeling
Children learn Names What they should believe and feel How to act Children learn concepts and how they should act toward them

11 How to Change Attitudes
3 Factors 1. Person communicating Message 2. Content of Message 3. Audience

12 Persuasion To change attitudes
Peripheral Route Almost latent Little attention to the central content Depends on persuasion cues that surround message Implicit, not systematic or formal Example anecdotal or celebrity endorsements/opinion Person delivering message: Is key Confidence, Attractiveness Characteristics Central Route (direct attempt at attitude change) Content of message more important that characteristics of communication Logic – people analyze validity, assess alternatives and evidence, Which focuses depends on importance of message Evidence + arguments Trigger favorable thoughts Thoughtful formal and empirical

13 Social Pressure Other people Can weaken or strengthen attitudes
When external influences are minimal attitudes are dominant Behavior also influences attitudes

14 Foot in the Door People who agree to a small request comply easier with a larger request. Hence people will increasingly adjust their attitudes to their actions Get people to agree to something small then to a bigger request People have been shown to act against their attitudes.  People have a tendency to Adjusting attitudes to match actions “After speaking or writing or writing on behalf of a position they have qualms about… they begin to believe their own words.”

15 Cognitive Dissonance Festinger
“People want their thoughts beliefs and attitudes to be consistent with their behavior” Occurs when “we become aware (or unconscious) that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide.” This creates tension = cognitive dissonance- to relieve the tension we change our attitudes to fall in line with our behavior.

16 Attitudes Follow Behavior
(Example) Moral actions build moral attitudes We cannot always directly control our attitudes, (example- negative thoughts) but we can influence them by altering our behavior. We can talk in more positive/self-accepting ways We can create a more loving/giving behavior = more loving giving attitudes “What we do we become” “Changing behavior can change how we think.”

17 Classic Studies Conformity, Compliance, Obedience to Authority, Bystander Apathy Asch- Zimbardo- Milgram- Kitty Genovese Bandura

18 Social Influences “Changes in behavior are induced by action of others.” Types of Social Influence: Suggestion Intensive Indoctrination Group Pressure= Conformity Obedience to Authority Group Behavior

19 Group Pressure= Conformity
People become aware of differences between themselves and actions, norms or values of others in group. Conformity= Complying with social pressure Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard (less conformity in individualist cultures) “Brings one’s own behavior into agreement with norms or the behavior of others” Norms= unspoken rules of conduct, normal or acceptable behavior

20 Conformity Conformist- to not be considered strange or frightening
Non-conformist- independent thinking

21 Automatic Mimicry: Humans tend to go with their group Think similar
To behave Mood Contagion: We have a tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us. Mirror Neurons/”Chameleon Effect”

22 Who Conforms? People with high needs for structure Anxious
Qualities of Conformity: People are more likely to conform when they: Are made to feel incompetent or insecure Are in a group of at least 3 people Are in a group in which everyone agrees (1 dissenter = less conformity) Are from a culture that encourages social respect (collectivist) People with high needs for structure Anxious Low self esteem and low self confidence Concerned with approval Culture that emphasizes group cooperation

23 Solomon Asch Studied conformity- found that people conform to the will of the group-

24 “The Power of Conformity” Asch (1955) Social Pressure
Summarize the Theoretical propositions Describe the method Summarize the results Significance of Study Factors that impact Conforming Behavior Social Support Attraction Size of Group SEX

25 Group Factors in Conformity
To enforce conformity= group sanctions Negative= ridicule, laughing, staring, social disapproval, rejection/exclusion Sanctions work only if the subject wants to be part of the group.

26 Social Support- for Non-conformists
Support for non-conformists- When someone agrees with non-conformist It encourages- resistance to conformity Attraction: More attraction to the group (Reference Group) -> the more likely you are to conform to behavior and attitudes of group. Size of the Group: The tendency to conform increases as the size of the group increases (6-7) Sex/Gender There is some evidence to suggest women are more likely to conform People conform when appropriate behavior is unclear. Culture impacts conformity Collectivist Countries: Goals of the group in relation to goals of the individual.

27 When is it appropriate to resist authority?: Obedience
Milgram Study: Obedience Study (1963) Yale University, “Obey at Any Cost” Subjects “gave” electric shocks to “learners” giving shocks.

28 Milgram’s Ideas The tendency to obey is deeply ingrained.
It cancels out a person’s ability to behave morally, ethically, and sympathetically. People have a tendency to obey people of authority- even if they violate their own codes of behavior. They would inflict pain on people if ordered to do so.

29 Milgram Findings and Implications
Distance to subject being shocked was a factor Closer to victim= less obedience Distance of Authority figure = direct relationship to obedience- Farther away = less obedience When orders come from authority figures- people rationalize that they are not responsible. Legitimate authority/Authority figure had high status The victim was dis-associated= farther away from participant High obedience when no contrary role models were visible**A personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two members of a group may free others to disobey- unjust authority.

30 Commentary “These experiences demonstrate that the strong social influences can make people conform to falsehoods of capitulate to cruelty.” “Normal reaction to an abnormal situation is abnormal behavior.” James Waller Milgram exploited the foot in the door effect… started small

31 Compliance- One person bends to the authority of another person who has little authority Pressure to comply- affects everyday people

32 Compliance and Sales Pressure
Foot in the Door: a person who first agrees to a small request- will more likely comply with a larger demand Door in the face: With the idea of refusing a large request is a tendency to comply with a smaller request. Low Ball: get the person to commit to an act, then make terms of acting less desirable

33 Passive Compliance Quietly bending to unreasonable demands or unacceptable conditions People have a tendency to avoid confrontation Ignore- personal insults, rebuffs, sacrifices of dignity

34 Roles We all hold social roles
Positions in the structure of a group Patterns of behavior expected of persons in various social positions Roles are Ascribed- assigned to a person not under a person’s control Roles: Mother Boss Student Each has different expectations or sets of behavior.

35 Achieved Roles= the opposite of assigned roles
Voluntary roles Attained by special effort Spouse Teacher Scientist

36 Zimbardo Study- Guard roles Dejected Traumatized Passive Dehumanized
Stanford University Impact on social roles Inmates + guards Males in a simulated prison Found destructive roles- cause role behaviors They had assigned social roles- “In only a few days, our guards became sadistic and our prisoners became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress.” Prisoner roles Guard roles Dejected Traumatized Passive Dehumanized Depressed Commanding Insulting demeaning

37 Zimbardo Results Why do ordinary people do horrible things?
Many destructive relationships have a source in Learned Roles. Obedience Conformity The Situation Compliance

38 Role Conflicts Two or more roles make conflicting demands
Coach and parent Clashing demands for work, family, school

39 Groups Influence our Behavior
Culture = ongoing pattern of life that is passed from one generation to another. Components of Culture include: Language, marriage customs, concepts of ownership, sex roles

40 The Group Structure of a given group may affect behavior of the group as a unit i.e., group polarization. Structure of a given group may affect behavior of the individual group member i.e., de-individualization.

41 Group Structure and Cohesion
Factors to Cohesion=closeness Degree of attraction among group members Commitment to remaining in group Cohesive groups: Sit/sand together Pay attention to one another Mutual Affection Behavior is coordinated Work better together

42 Status A person’s social position in a group determines his or her status- or level of social power & importance. Higher status = privileges Higher status people are treated better- Well dressed

43 Norms Unspoken rules or guidelines
Are an accepted standard for appropriate behavior for a specific group Lax norms cause lax behavior

44 Social Influence A person’s behavior influences another.
A convergence of beliefs, attitudes = change in behavior

45 Personal Space and Proxemics
Too close = discomfort Hall found 4 zones of personal space Intimate- within 18” Personal- 18” to 4’ Social- 4’-12’ Public- 12’ or more See notes Touch and Status

46 Touch and Status Touch is a privilege of power.
High status more likely to touch lower status people Men are more likely to touch women of lower status

47 What motivates us to join a group?
“Desires for Self-evaluation Self-protection Self-enhancement Influence which group we join. Are motives for associating with others

48 Affiliation-basic principle
Basic human trait A desire to associate with other people Connected to needs of: Approval, support, friendship, information Helps alleviate – fear and anxiety We prefer to be with people in similar circumstances

49 Behavior of Groups: Group Membership
Festinger said group membership fills need for: Social Comparison- standard to judge yourself Comparing your own actions, feelings, opinions, abilities… Must be compared to people of similar background, abilities, circumstances Downward Comparison: Comparison- for self-enhancement- self protection Comparing to someone who ranks lower Upward Comparison: Comparison with people of higher status- for self improvement

50 Social Relationships Interpersonal Attraction= affinity to another person Is the basis for most voluntary social relationships

51 Factors that Influence Attraction
Physical proximity Physical attractiveness Halo Effect- tendency to generalize favorable impression to personal characteristics Attractive people have perceived likeable characteristics Beauty vs. Personality = Which works best? (page 675) Competence- we are attracted to talented people Similarity-age, sex, race, background, interests, attitudes, beliefs

52 Relationships Self-Disclosure- Over Disclosure- Reciprocity-
Gendered Friendships

53 Social Exchange Theory “How profitable is the relationship?”
Exchanges of attention, info, affection, favors Says: we all consciously weigh social rewards and costs Relationships must be profitable to participants: Rewards vs costs Fun vs Self Esteem

54 Love and Liking Factors
Romantic Attraction: Interpersonal attraction + emotional arousal Love = combinations Intimacy, passion, commitment and sexual desire Lovers see partners in idealized ways Helps create the relationship they wish for.

55 Love and Attachment Child care-giving attachments have impact on adult attachments We use early attachments as mental models (We become what we learn) Secure- Avoidant- Ambivalent-

56 Attachments Secure Attachment (59%) = friendly, good natured, likeable
See others as well intentioned, reliable, trustworthy Generally not worried about being abandoned Avoidant Attachment (25%): Fear of intimacy, tend to resist commitment Pull back when things don’t go well Suspicious, aloof, skeptical Have difficulty trusting Get nervous when people get too close emotionally

57 Ambivalent Attachment
Mixed emotions and Conflicting feelings Affection, anger, emotional turmoil, physical attraction, doubt Self regard- misunderstood, unappreciated See others- unreliable, unable or unwilling to commit to lasting relationships Worry- partners don’t really love them or may leave, they want to be close but have doubts

58 Evolution and Mate Selection: Men
Evolutionary psych= study of evolutionary origins of behavior or patterns Patterns: Men are interested in casual sex Men prefer younger, more physically attractive partners Men are jealous over real or imagined infidelity Men look for reproductive capabilities, youth, health, beauty

59 Evolution and Mate Selection: Women
Prefer slightly older partners Industrious, high status, economic success Become upset by emotional infidelity more than sexual unfaithfulness Evolved- Nurturing of young Interest in longevity of relationships

60 What is Group Think? Phenomenon of group behavior:
People want to maintain approval- even if decisions are bad. Authority- group members hesitate to question authority They think as a group instead of thinking about outcomes independently

61 To Prevent Group Think: Define group roles
Critical evaluator Stick to the facts-avoid bias Include “devils advocate” Group accountability Search for alternative solutions Re-evaluate important decisions

62 “Not Practicing What you Preach” By LaPiere (1934) on Attitudes
Summarize the Theoretical propositions Describe the method Summarize the results Significance of Study Factors impacting consistency between attitudes and behavior Strength of Attitude Stability of attitude Relevance of attitude Salience of attitude Situational pressures

63 LaPiere- Attitude Thought and Action
Factors impacting consistency between attitudes and behavior Strength of Attitude- Stability of attitude Relevance of attitude Salience of attitude Situational pressures

64 Social Pressures We are constantly under pressure to conform, obey, comply- We need to recognize and resist these pressures. Assertiveness Aggression Victimization

65 Bystander Interaction “To Help or Not to Help” Darley and Latane (1968)
Kitty Genovese Murder- Summarize the Theoretical propositions Describe the method Summarize the results Significance of Study

66 Darley and Lantane: Kitty Genovese Murder
Why didn’t more people help Kitty Genovese? Factors in Bystander Interaction Diffusion of Responsibility Social Influence Personal Responsibility Evaluation apprehension Fives Steps of Action Social Comparison Acquaintances and Bystander Effect Knowledge of Bystander Effect

67 Darley and Lantane: Five Steps to Decision
Notice Need Personal Responsibility, Decision-cost benefit analysis- Take action

68 Social Cognition Questions
How does perception, learning, and emotion affect how people think about themselves and others? How do we form impressions? How do we develop attitudes? Includes- Social influences, Social Comparison, Social Identity, Self Schemas, social Perception

69 Social Cognition “Mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive and react to other individuals and groups.”

70 Social Influences on the Self
Self concept: Beliefs we hold about who we are and what characteristics we have Self Esteem: The evaluations we make bout how worthy wee are as humans (pg. 689)

71 Leon Festinger (1954) Researched Self Evaluation
Found 2 questions when people think about self evaluation 1. Temporal comparison = how are we now in relation to how we were earlier? 2. Social Comparison= we evaluate ourselves in relation to others- We use reference groups (comparing ourselves to similar people)

72 Terms Downward Social Comparisons: Upward Social Comparisons:
Strategy to protect self-esteem , comparing ourselves with others who are seen as inferior Upward Social Comparisons: To build up the self-concept, giving hope, we could achieve those great achievements

73 Social Identity Our group identity Self Schemas- (we create these)
feelings of being part of a group Self Schemas- (we create these) People’s beliefs about themselves and the attributes they possess

74 Social Perceptions The process through which people interpret information about others Form impressions Draw conclusions about reasons for their behavior

75 How and Why does social perception influence us?
Schemas- help form 1st impressions Lead to quick processing that tends to confirm beliefs Schema’s influence what we remember Schemas can lead to inaccurate judgments when expectations don’t match our beliefs Schemas influence our first impressions and out Perceptions of people’s behavior

76 Self Fulfilling Prophecy
Schema’s may lead to people reinforcing expected behavior

77 Prejudice and Stereotypes
Schema’s about entire groups The perceptions and beliefs and expectations a person has about members of a group Usually false assumption that all members share the characteristic Usually negative

78 Prejudice Stereotype leads to prejudice A prejudgment-
“Positive or negative attitude toward an individual based on membership of a group”

79 How and why does stereotyping + prejudice occur?
Causation Motivational Theory: Connected to personality traits Example- Authoritarians- feel safer They identify with the in group… Thus they are motivated to maintain self perception and status Social identity is influenced by superior adherence to “in group” Motivation is to enhance their own self-esteem

80 Cognitive Theory of Stereotyping
Schemas- organize our social world We draw conclusions (sometimes inaccurate) Create social categories and assumptions

81 Learning Theory Prejudice is learned Observational Experiential

82 Interpersonal (Factors of Attraction)
Environment Comfortable and rewarded increase attraction Proximity Associations Similarity Physical attractiveness

83 Intimate Relationships and Love
Interdependence Thoughts, emotions, behaviors Of one mate affect the other Commitment- The extent to which each person in the relationship is psychologically attached to the relationship + wants to remain in it

84 Sternberg and love Triangular Theory 3 components Intimacy Passion
Commitment Link

85 5 Types of Social Power Leadership styles and why people support them. The primary issue is that these describe the origin of their power and influence? Expert Referent Legitimate Reward Coercive


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