1. Social Psychology Modules 74-80
McElhaney

2. “Humans are social Animals” The Study of Human interaction
Branch of Psych that analyzes how behavior is influenced by presence of others
“Presence + Behavior of other people affect our own behavior.”
Studies how we behave, think, feel in Social Situations.
Based on the concept of an Attribute: the cause of behavior

3. Social Psychology Defined
Scientific study of how individuals behave, think, feel in social situations
Bernstein Social Cognition: “The scientific study of how people’s thoughts and feelings influence their behavior toward others and How behavior of others influence people's own thoughts, feelings and behavior.”
*(The pressure of others)
Includes:
Values
Behavior Patterns
Expectations

4. Attribution Attribution= is a cause for behavior
Attribute- (verb) place cause
through observation of others Inferences/judgments about causes of behavior

5. Attributional Theory
We tend to ascribe or attribute causes of behavior to:
Situational Attribution/External causes: outside a person
Dispositional Attribution/Internal causes: inside a person

6. What should one consider when making attributions?
Factors of Attribution
Actor: Who is it?
Object: What is action directed towards?
Setting: Social or physical environment
Consistency: little changes on multiple occasions
Distinctiveness: Behavior that occurs under specific circumstances.

7. Self-Serving Bias
We have a tendency to attribute our own bad behavior to situational factors
We also have a tendency to attribute bad behavior of others to dispositional factors (example of poverty)
Actor-Observer Bias:
(I vs. They)
As actors- we find external explanations for our own behavior.
As observers- we attribute behavior of others’ wants, motives and personality traits

8. Errors in Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error:
“We make mistakes – to overestimate the impact of the situation or the personality traits in explaining behavior.”

9. Attitudes
Is the tendency to think feel or act positively or negatively toward objects in our environment
“Attitudes affects our actions.”

10. Forming Attitudes Learned- primary Social Learning and Modeling
Children learn
Names
What they should believe and feel
How to act
Children learn concepts and how they should act toward them

11. How to Change Attitudes
3 Factors
1. Person communicating Message
2. Content of Message
3. Audience

12. Persuasion To change attitudes
Peripheral Route
Almost latent
Little attention to the central content
Depends on persuasion cues that surround message
Implicit, not systematic or formal
Example anecdotal or celebrity endorsements/opinion
Person delivering message: Is key
Confidence, Attractiveness Characteristics
Central Route (direct attempt at attitude change)
Content of message more important that characteristics of communication
Logic – people analyze validity, assess alternatives and evidence,
Which focuses depends on importance of message
Evidence + arguments
Trigger favorable thoughts
Thoughtful formal and empirical

13. Social Pressure Other people Can weaken or strengthen attitudes
When external influences are minimal attitudes are dominant
Behavior also influences attitudes

14. Foot in the Door
People who agree to a small request comply easier with a larger request.
Hence people will increasingly adjust their attitudes to their actions
Get people to agree to something small then to a bigger request
People have been shown to act against their attitudes.
 People have a tendency to Adjusting attitudes to match actions
“After speaking or writing or writing on behalf of a position they have qualms about… they begin to believe their own words.”

15. Cognitive Dissonance Festinger
“People want their thoughts beliefs and attitudes to be consistent with their behavior”
Occurs when “we become aware (or unconscious) that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide.”
This creates tension = cognitive dissonance- to relieve the tension we change our attitudes to fall in line with our behavior.

16. Attitudes Follow Behavior
(Example) Moral actions build moral attitudes
We cannot always directly control our attitudes, (example- negative thoughts) but we can influence them by altering our behavior.
We can talk in more positive/self-accepting ways
We can create a more loving/giving behavior = more loving giving attitudes
“What we do we become”
“Changing behavior can change how we think.”

17. Classic Studies
Conformity, Compliance, Obedience to Authority, Bystander Apathy
Asch-
Zimbardo-
Milgram-
Kitty Genovese
Bandura

18. Social Influences
“Changes in behavior are induced by action of others.”
Types of Social Influence:
Suggestion
Intensive Indoctrination
Group Pressure= Conformity
Obedience to Authority
Group Behavior

19. Group Pressure= Conformity
People become aware of differences between themselves and actions, norms or values of others in group.
Conformity= Complying with social pressure
Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
(less conformity in individualist cultures)
“Brings one’s own behavior into agreement with norms or the behavior of others”
Norms= unspoken rules of conduct, normal or acceptable behavior

20. Conformity Conformist- to not be considered strange or frightening
Non-conformist- independent thinking

21. Automatic Mimicry: Humans tend to go with their group Think similar
To behave
Mood Contagion:
We have a tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us.
Mirror Neurons/”Chameleon Effect”

22. Who Conforms? People with high needs for structure Anxious
Qualities of Conformity:
People are more likely to conform when they:
Are made to feel incompetent or insecure
Are in a group of at least 3 people
Are in a group in which everyone agrees
(1 dissenter = less conformity)
Are from a culture that encourages social respect (collectivist)
People with high needs for structure
Anxious
Low self esteem and low self confidence
Concerned with approval
Culture that emphasizes group cooperation

23. Solomon Asch
Studied conformity- found that people conform to the will of the group-

24. “The Power of Conformity” Asch (1955) Social Pressure
Summarize the Theoretical propositions
Describe the method
Summarize the results
Significance of Study
Factors that impact Conforming Behavior
Social Support
Attraction
Size of Group
SEX

25. Group Factors in Conformity
To enforce conformity= group sanctions
Negative= ridicule, laughing, staring, social disapproval, rejection/exclusion
Sanctions work only if the subject wants to be part of the group.

26. Social Support- for Non-conformists
Support for non-conformists- When someone agrees with non-conformist
It encourages- resistance to conformity
Attraction: More attraction to the group (Reference Group) -> the more likely you are to conform to behavior and attitudes of group.
Size of the Group:
The tendency to conform increases as the size of the group increases (6-7)
Sex/Gender
There is some evidence to suggest women are more likely to conform
People conform when appropriate behavior is unclear.
Culture impacts conformity
Collectivist Countries: Goals of the group in relation to goals of the individual.

27. When is it appropriate to resist authority?: Obedience
Milgram Study: Obedience Study (1963)
Yale University,
“Obey at Any Cost” Subjects “gave” electric shocks to “learners” giving shocks.

28. Milgram’s Ideas The tendency to obey is deeply ingrained.
It cancels out a person’s ability to behave morally, ethically, and sympathetically.
People have a tendency to obey people of authority- even if they violate their own codes of behavior.
They would inflict pain on people if ordered to do so.

29. Milgram Findings and Implications
Distance to subject being shocked was a factor
Closer to victim= less obedience
Distance of Authority figure = direct relationship to obedience-
Farther away = less obedience
When orders come from authority figures- people rationalize that they are not responsible.
Legitimate authority/Authority figure had high status
The victim was dis-associated= farther away from participant
High obedience when no contrary role models were visible**A personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two members of a group may free others to disobey- unjust authority.

30. Commentary
“These experiences demonstrate that the strong social influences can make people conform to falsehoods of capitulate to cruelty.”
“Normal reaction to an abnormal situation is abnormal behavior.” James Waller
Milgram exploited the foot in the door effect… started small

31. Compliance-
One person bends to the authority of another person who has little authority
Pressure to comply- affects everyday people

32. Compliance and Sales Pressure
Foot in the Door: a person who first agrees to a small request- will more likely comply with a larger demand
Door in the face: With the idea of refusing a large request is a tendency to comply with a smaller request.
Low Ball: get the person to commit to an act, then make terms of acting less desirable

33. Passive Compliance
Quietly bending to unreasonable demands or unacceptable conditions
People have a tendency to avoid confrontation
Ignore- personal insults, rebuffs, sacrifices of dignity

34. Roles We all hold social roles
Positions in the structure of a group
Patterns of behavior expected of persons in various social positions
Roles are Ascribed- assigned to a person
not under a person’s control
Roles:
Mother
Boss
Student
Each has different expectations or sets of behavior.

35. Achieved Roles= the opposite of assigned roles
Voluntary roles
Attained by special effort
Spouse
Teacher
Scientist

36. Zimbardo Study- Guard roles Dejected Traumatized Passive Dehumanized
Stanford University
Impact on social roles
Inmates + guards
Males in a simulated prison
Found destructive roles- cause role behaviors
They had assigned social roles-
“In only a few days, our guards became sadistic and our prisoners became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress.”
Prisoner roles
Guard roles
Dejected
Traumatized
Passive
Dehumanized
Depressed
Commanding
Insulting
demeaning

37. Zimbardo Results Why do ordinary people do horrible things?
Many destructive relationships have a source in Learned Roles.
Obedience
Conformity
The Situation
Compliance

38. Role Conflicts Two or more roles make conflicting demands
Coach and parent
Clashing demands for work, family, school

39. Groups Influence our Behavior
Culture = ongoing pattern of life that is passed from one generation to another.
Components of Culture include:
Language, marriage customs, concepts of ownership, sex roles

40. The Group
Structure of a given group may affect behavior of the group as a unit i.e., group polarization.
Structure of a given group may affect behavior of the individual group member i.e., de-individualization.

41. Group Structure and Cohesion
Factors to Cohesion=closeness
Degree of attraction among group members
Commitment to remaining in group
Cohesive groups:
Sit/sand together
Pay attention to one another
Mutual Affection
Behavior is coordinated
Work better together

42. Status
A person’s social position in a group determines his or her status- or level of social power & importance.
Higher status = privileges
Higher status people are treated better- Well dressed

43. Norms Unspoken rules or guidelines
Are an accepted standard for appropriate behavior for a specific group
Lax norms cause lax behavior

44. Social Influence A person’s behavior influences another.
A convergence of beliefs, attitudes = change in behavior

45. Personal Space and Proxemics
Too close = discomfort
Hall found 4 zones of personal space
Intimate- within 18”
Personal- 18” to 4’
Social- 4’-12’
Public- 12’ or more
See notes Touch and Status

46. Touch and Status Touch is a privilege of power.
High status more likely to touch lower status people
Men are more likely to touch women of lower status

47. What motivates us to join a group?
“Desires for
Self-evaluation
Self-protection
Self-enhancement
Influence which group we join.
Are motives for associating with others

48. Affiliation-basic principle
Basic human trait
A desire to associate with other people
Connected to needs of:
Approval, support, friendship, information
Helps alleviate – fear and anxiety
We prefer to be with people in similar circumstances

49. Behavior of Groups: Group Membership
Festinger said group membership fills need for:
Social Comparison- standard to judge yourself
Comparing your own actions, feelings, opinions, abilities…
Must be compared to people of similar background, abilities, circumstances
Downward Comparison:
Comparison- for self-enhancement- self protection
Comparing to someone who ranks lower
Upward Comparison:
Comparison with people of higher status- for self improvement

50. Social Relationships
Interpersonal Attraction= affinity to another person
Is the basis for most voluntary social relationships

51. Factors that Influence Attraction
Physical proximity
Physical attractiveness
Halo Effect- tendency to generalize favorable impression to personal characteristics
Attractive people have perceived likeable characteristics
Beauty vs. Personality = Which works best?
(page 675)
Competence- we are attracted to talented people
Similarity-age, sex, race, background, interests, attitudes, beliefs

52. Relationships Self-Disclosure- Over Disclosure- Reciprocity-
Gendered Friendships

53. Social Exchange Theory “How profitable is the relationship?”
Exchanges of attention, info, affection, favors
Says: we all consciously weigh social rewards and costs
Relationships must be profitable to participants:
Rewards vs costs
Fun vs Self Esteem

54. Love and Liking Factors
Romantic Attraction:
Interpersonal attraction + emotional arousal
Love = combinations
Intimacy, passion, commitment and sexual desire
Lovers see partners in idealized ways
Helps create the relationship they wish for.

55. Love and Attachment
Child care-giving attachments have impact on adult attachments
We use early attachments as mental models (We become what we learn)
Secure-
Avoidant-
Ambivalent-

56. Attachments Secure Attachment (59%) = friendly, good natured, likeable
See others as well intentioned, reliable, trustworthy
Generally not worried about being abandoned
Avoidant Attachment (25%):
Fear of intimacy, tend to resist commitment
Pull back when things don’t go well
Suspicious, aloof, skeptical
Have difficulty trusting
Get nervous when people get too close emotionally

57. Ambivalent Attachment
Mixed emotions and Conflicting feelings
Affection, anger, emotional turmoil, physical attraction, doubt
Self regard- misunderstood, unappreciated
See others- unreliable, unable or unwilling to commit to lasting relationships
Worry- partners don’t really love them or may leave, they want to be close but have doubts

58. Evolution and Mate Selection: Men
Evolutionary psych= study of evolutionary origins of behavior or patterns
Patterns:
Men are interested in casual sex
Men prefer younger, more physically attractive partners
Men are jealous over real or imagined infidelity
Men look for reproductive capabilities, youth, health, beauty

59. Evolution and Mate Selection: Women
Prefer slightly older partners
Industrious, high status, economic success
Become upset by emotional infidelity more than sexual unfaithfulness
Evolved-
Nurturing of young
Interest in longevity of relationships

60. What is Group Think? Phenomenon of group behavior:
People want to maintain approval- even if decisions are bad.
Authority- group members hesitate to question authority
They think as a group instead of thinking about outcomes independently

61. To Prevent Group Think: Define group roles
Critical evaluator
Stick to the facts-avoid bias
Include “devils advocate”
Group accountability
Search for alternative solutions
Re-evaluate important decisions

62. “Not Practicing What you Preach” By LaPiere (1934) on Attitudes
Summarize the Theoretical propositions
Describe the method
Summarize the results
Significance of Study
Factors impacting consistency between attitudes and behavior
Strength of Attitude
Stability of attitude
Relevance of attitude
Salience of attitude
Situational pressures

63. LaPiere- Attitude Thought and Action
Factors impacting consistency between attitudes and behavior
Strength of Attitude-
Stability of attitude
Relevance of attitude
Salience of attitude
Situational pressures

64. Social Pressures
We are constantly under pressure to conform, obey, comply-
We need to recognize and resist these pressures.
Assertiveness
Aggression
Victimization

65. Bystander Interaction “To Help or Not to Help” Darley and Latane (1968)
Kitty Genovese Murder-
Summarize the Theoretical propositions
Describe the method
Summarize the results
Significance of Study

66. Darley and Lantane: Kitty Genovese Murder
Why didn’t more people help Kitty Genovese?
Factors in Bystander Interaction
Diffusion of Responsibility
Social Influence
Personal Responsibility
Evaluation apprehension
Fives Steps of Action
Social Comparison
Acquaintances and Bystander Effect
Knowledge of Bystander Effect

67. Darley and Lantane: Five Steps to Decision
Notice
Need
Personal Responsibility,
Decision-cost benefit analysis-
Take action

68. Social Cognition Questions
How does perception, learning, and emotion affect how people think about themselves and others?
How do we form impressions?
How do we develop attitudes?
Includes- Social influences, Social Comparison, Social Identity, Self Schemas, social Perception

69. Social Cognition
“Mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive and react to other individuals and groups.”

70. Social Influences on the Self
Self concept:
Beliefs we hold about who we are and what characteristics we have
Self Esteem:
The evaluations we make bout how worthy wee are as humans (pg. 689)

71. Leon Festinger (1954) Researched Self Evaluation
Found 2 questions when people think about self evaluation
1. Temporal comparison = how are we now in relation to how we were earlier?
2. Social Comparison= we evaluate ourselves in relation to others-
We use reference groups (comparing ourselves to similar people)

72. Terms Downward Social Comparisons: Upward Social Comparisons:
Strategy to protect self-esteem , comparing ourselves with others who are seen as inferior
Upward Social Comparisons:
To build up the self-concept, giving hope, we could achieve those great achievements

73. Social Identity Our group identity Self Schemas- (we create these)
feelings of being part of a group
Self Schemas- (we create these)
People’s beliefs about themselves and the attributes they possess

74. Social Perceptions
The process through which people interpret information about others
Form impressions
Draw conclusions about reasons for their behavior

75. How and Why does social perception influence us?
Schemas- help form 1st impressions
Lead to quick processing that tends to confirm beliefs
Schema’s influence what we remember
Schemas can lead to inaccurate judgments when expectations don’t match our beliefs
Schemas influence our first impressions and out Perceptions of people’s behavior

76. Self Fulfilling Prophecy
Schema’s may lead to people reinforcing expected behavior

77. Prejudice and Stereotypes
Schema’s about entire groups
The perceptions and beliefs and expectations a person has about members of a group
Usually false assumption that all members share the characteristic
Usually negative

78. Prejudice Stereotype leads to prejudice A prejudgment-
“Positive or negative attitude toward an individual based on membership of a group”

79. How and why does stereotyping + prejudice occur?
Causation
Motivational Theory:
Connected to personality traits
Example- Authoritarians- feel safer
They identify with the in group…
Thus they are motivated to maintain self perception and status
Social identity is influenced by superior adherence to “in group”
Motivation is to enhance their own self-esteem

80. Cognitive Theory of Stereotyping
Schemas- organize our social world
We draw conclusions (sometimes inaccurate)
Create social categories and assumptions

81. Learning Theory
Prejudice is learned
Observational
Experiential

82. Interpersonal (Factors of Attraction)
Environment
Comfortable and rewarded increase attraction
Proximity
Associations
Similarity
Physical attractiveness

83. Intimate Relationships and Love
Interdependence
Thoughts, emotions, behaviors
Of one mate affect the other
Commitment-
The extent to which each person in the relationship is psychologically attached to the relationship + wants to remain in it

84. Sternberg and love Triangular Theory 3 components Intimacy Passion
Commitment
Link

85. 5 Types of Social Power
Leadership styles and why people support them. The primary issue is that these describe the origin of their power and influence?
Expert
Referent
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive