1. Biological Evolution

2. Diversity and Relationships
Charles Darwin ( ) was an English scientist who began as a naturalist aboard a ship that sailed all over the world.
Darwin became curious about the diverse creatures that he saw and the possible relationships between them.
He searched for a reason why organisms change over time
He observed that there were many struggles for survival: finding mates, food, and shelter while escaping predators and sickness
From this he identified the process of natural selection

3. Natural Selection
For years, people had bred specific organisms to have certain traits – artificial selection
Ex. breeding corn plants that produce the most ears
Natural Selection occurs when organisms with certain traits survive, reproduce, and pass on those traits to the next generation.
Ex: A faster fish may be better suited for escaping predators and live to produce offspring with that same variation
A slower fish may be more easily caught by a predator and never live to reproduce and pass on that trait
This is often described as “Survival of the Fittest”

4. Four Principles of Natural Selection
Overproduction of offspring – having many offspring raises the chance that some will survive
Variation – Variation exists in the inherited phenotypes of the individuals within every population. An organism’s phenotype may influence its ability to find, obtain, or utilize its resources (food, water, shelter, and oxygen) and also might affect the organism’s ability to reproduce. Phenotypic variation is
controlled by the
organism’s genotype
and the environment.

5. Four Principles of Natural Selection
Adaptation - The process of adaptation leads to the increase in frequency of a particular structure, physiological process, or behavior in a population of organisms that makes the organisms better able to survive and reproduce.
“Fitness” is used to measure how a particular trait contributes to the reproductive success in a given environment and results from adaptation
Descent with modification - As the environment of a population changes, the entire process of natural selection can yield populations with new phenotypes adapted to new conditions. Natural selection can produce populations that have different structures, live in different niches or habitats from their ancestors. Each successive living species will have descended, with adaptations or other modifications, from previous generations.

6. Examples of Adaptations

7. Genetic Processes
Most scientist attribute the continuity of life-forms over time to the genetic processes that all organisms share:
All life that has ever existed on Earth share at least the same two structures:
Nucleic Acids (DNA or RNA) that carry the code for the synthesis of the organism’s proteins
Proteins which are composed of the same twenty amino acids in all life forms
The same sequences of nucleotides code for the same specific amino acids.

8. Reproduction Sexual Asexual Genetic Varity Due to:
Gene shuffling, crossing-over, recombination of DNA, mutations
Genetic changes result in changes in the phenotype
Different allele combinations produce traits that can improve individuals chances of survival
Genetic Varity: can only occur through mutations in DNA passed from parent to offspring
Examples:
Binary fission, budding, fragmentation, vegetative propagation
Offspring are generally genetically identical to their parent

9. Diversity within a Species
All the genes, including different alleles, in a given population is called the “gene pool”
Diversity within a species makes it more likely that the right adaptation could be present – therefore, an increase in diversity increases its chances of survival

10. 5 Factors That Can Affect Genetic Variability
Genetic Drift - the random change in the frequency of alleles of a population over time. Due to chance, rare alleles in a population will decrease in frequency and become eliminated; other alleles will increase in frequency and become fixed
Gene Flow - the movement of genes into or out of a population. This occurs during the movement of individuals between populations (such as migration) thus increasing the genetic variability of the receiving population.

11. 5 Factors That Can Affect Genetic Variability
Non-random Mating – Mating among individuals with favorable traits (such as coloration or odors in plants and animals, competitive strength, courting behaviors) results in the gene pool of a population that can change over time and a species that can become increasingly adapted to its environment.
Mutations - increase the frequencies and types of allele changes within the population
Natural Selection - allows for the most favorable phenotypes to survive and thus be passed on to future generations.

12. Hardy-Weinberg Principle
When there is no change in the allele frequencies in a species, the population is in genetic equilibrium.
This concept is known as the Hardy-Weinberg Principle. To sustain equilibrium, the must be:
A very large population with no genetic drift
No movement into or out of the population
Random mating
No mutations with the gene pool
No natural selection
Godfrey Hardy ( )
Wilhelm Weinberg ( )

13. Evidence of Biological Evolution
The changes in inherited traits in a species over time is called biological evolution.
Microevolution occurs on a small scale affecting a single population
Macroevolution occurs on a large scale affecting changes in species across populations
We can look at common adaptations to trace the history of different organisms and see how they may have evolved from a common ancestor.
The species we see today evolved from species of former periods in time
Other Evidence of Evolution
Paleontology
Anatomy
Embryology
Biochemistry

14. Paleontology Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life
Fossils are preserved remains of organisms that lived many years ago
Comparing current and ancient species shows a pattern of gradual change from the past to the present.
Examining the fossil record of Earth reveals the history of organisms that have lived on Earth (including those that are extinct) and the relative ages of those fossils.
The fossil record is not complete because most organisms do not form fossils. Many of the gaps in the fossil record have been filled in as more fossils have been discovered.
The older the fossils, the less resemblance there is to modern species.

15. Anatomy Anatomy is the study of the structures of organisms
Structures in different species with common evolutionary origin are called homologous structures
The can be similar in:
Arrangement
Function
Both
Scientists view homologous structures as evidence of a common ancestor because it would be unlikely for so many animals to have similar structures if they developed individually.
The study of evolutionary relationships between homologous structures is called Comparative Anatomy

16. Anatomy
Similar function of a body feature does not always mean they have a common ancestor.
The wings of birds and insects evolved from distinctly different groups of ancestors.
Though their wings are alike in function, they differ in structure.
Body parts of organisms that do not have similar ancestry are called analogous structures.

17. Anatomy Vestigial Structures also provide evidence of common ancestry.
Vestigial Structures have little or no function in an organism but were probably useful to an ancestor.
Example:
Our tailbone (coccyx) – has no current function but may once have been helpful to our ancestors
The eyes of blind mole rats
Pelvis of a snake
The muscles in human ears

18. Embryology Embryology is the study of embryo development in organisms
The could include pre-birth, pre-hatching, or pre-germination
The study of this development in different species is called comparative embryology
Studying the structures of embryos can lead to clues of possible ancestors
The embryos of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals all have a tail and gill slits even though they may not exist on the mature organism

19. Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in organisms
The study of the ability of different species to synthesize substances is called comparative biochemistry.
Comparison of the DNA sequences of two species provides some of the most reliable evidence.
Organisms with the common ability to synthesize a specific substance may be evidence of a common ancestor.
All citrus trees can produce citric acid and therefore may have developed from a common ancestor

20. Patterns of Biological Evolution
Speciation is the process of forming a new species by biological evolution from a preexisting species
Gradualism - Gradual changes of a species in over long periods of time
Ex - gradual trend toward larger or smaller body size.
Punctuated Equilibrium - Periods of abrupt changes in a species after long periods of little change within the species over time
Ex - sudden change in species size or shape due to environmental factors

21. Patterns of Biological Evolution
Divergent Evolution - a number of different species diverge (split-off) from a common ancestor. This occurs when, over many generations, organisms (whose ancestors were all of the same species) evolve a variety of characteristics which allow them to survive in different niches.

22. Patterns of Biological Evolution
Convergent Evolution - Evolution among different groups of organisms living in similar environments produce species that are similar in appearance and behavior. Convergent evolution has produced many of the analogous structures in organisms today.

23. Patterns of Biological Evolution
Coevolution - when two or more species living in close proximity change in response to each other. The evolution of one species may affect the evolution of the other.

24. Patterns of Biological Evolution
Extinction - the elimination of a species often occurring when a species cannot adapt to a change in its environment. This can be gradual or rapid.
Gradual extinction - occurs at a slow rate and may be due to other organisms, changes in climate, or natural disasters.
Mass extinction - occurs when a catastrophic event changes the environment very suddenly (such as a massive volcanic eruption, or a meteor hitting the earth causing massive climatic changes). It is often impossible for a species to adapt to rapid and extreme environmental changes.

25. Evolutionary Relationships
A Phylogenetic Tree shows the relationship of different organisms believed to have a common ancestor based on taxa (groups)
Branches from an intersection show those with a common ancestor
You can see that the snail, earthworm and insect have a more recent common ancestor than the snail and sea star
Time

26. Classification of Life
All living things can be classified as belonging to one of 3 Domains
Bacteria - Archaea - Eukarya
All living things can be classified as belonging to one of the 6 Kingdoms of Life
Archaeabacteria
Eubacteria
Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia

28. Kingdom Characteristics

29. Dichotomous Key 1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton ………go to step 2
A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, animals, or rocks. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item. "Dichotomous" means "divided into two parts". Therefore, dichotomous keys always give two choices in each step.
1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton ………go to step 2
b. wings not covered by an exoskeleton ……….go to step 3
2. a. body has a round shape ……….ladybug
b. body has an elongated shape ……….grasshopper
3. a. wings point out from the side of the body ……….dragonfly
b. wings point to the posterior of the body ……….housefly