1. Integrated Parasite Management for Small Ruminants
Slides contributed by Marguerite Frongillo, Steve Hart, Susan Schoenian, Mary Smith DVM and tatiana Stanton

2. Know your weapons Effective management Effective drug use
Effective surveillance

3. Integrated Parasite Management (IPM)
Goal is not to create parasite-free animals. It is normal for sheep and goats to have parasites. Goal is to prevent clinical disease and production losses.

4. Parasite control begins with good management and common sense
Good sanitation
Feeders which prevent wastage and contamination.
Clean water, free from fecal matter.
Not overstocking pens and pastures.
Isolation and deworming of new animals in an area where you can retrieve their manure easily.

5. Pasture Management to reduce barber pole worm problems
Use clean or safe pastures – easy to say, difficult to implement for entire grazing cycle
Use multispecies grazing
Use alternative forages
Make wise management decisions about pasture height, pasture rest, and pasture rotation

6. Use “clean or safe” pastures
What is a truly safe pasture?
New pasture
Pasture that has been renovated with tillage
A pasture that has not been grazed by sheep or goats for the past 6 to 12 months – however, worm population does start to drop sharply after 2 months.
Pasture grazed solely by horses and/or cattle for the past 6 to 12 months.
Pasture in which a hay, baleage or silage crop has been removed.
Pasture that has been rotated with row crops.
Burnt pasture

7. Dilute worm population by grazing multiple species
Sheep and goats share the same internal parasites, but they are different from the parasites that generally affect cattle and horses.
Cattle and horses “vacuum” sheep/goat pastures.
Other benefits  complimentary grazing habits.

8. Is this multispecies grazing? Is it going to be helpful?

9. Alternative forages
Livestock that browse have fewer parasite problems (excepting deer worm).
Livestock grazing tall-growing forages will have less parasite problems.
80% of parasites live in the first 2 inches of the vegetation.
Grazing high-tannin forages may reduce the effects of parasitism.

10. Forage Chicory
Sericea Lespedeza
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Pure stands of chicory, birdsfoot trefoil, and Sericea lespedeza have been shown to reduce fecal egg counts and/or larval development.

11. Hayfield Regrowth is a safe pasture alternative in late summer and fall

12. Pasture Height – 80% of the internal parasites found in bottom 2 inches of vegetation
Not a big concern during first pass through your rotational pastures after winter . Big concern in later passes.

13. In a grazing system for small ruminants we are:
Generally trying to move animals before the pasture is below 3 inches and get back in before pasture gets too mature

14. Too high and mature  high lignin  less nutritious and palatable for small ruminants  trampling losses , etcetera

15. Problems with intensive rotational grazing and small ruminant parasites -
In a rotational grazing system with the primary purpose of controlling worm populations, sheep/goats should not be returned to the same pasture for at least 45 to 60 days
This conflicts with the use of intensive rotational grazing to increase the nutritional off-take from a pasture
Due to increased stocking rates and rapid grazing intervals, management intensive grazing may increase internal parasite problems in sheep and goats as the grazing season progresses.

16. In summary
If animals are left in a grazing paddock for longer than 5 to 10 days, depending on weather, may be exposed to infectious larvae
Pasture rest periods to control internal parasites need to be longer than normal recommendations for either pasture health or nutritional value

17. Things to consider when using intensive rotational grazing
Are there safe pastures that animals can be moved onto as grazing season progresses?
Brush pastures
Hayfield regrowth
Pastures that your cattle or horses have been grazing
Crop stubble or seeded annuals
Can you disrupt the worm cycle by mowing the pasture extremely short, grazing other species, or harvesting a crop of hay or baleage before resuming grazing?

18. Rotational grazing in the spring appears to reduce the “barnyard effect” and delay the onset of summer parasite problems

19. Barnyard Effect Barnyards with grass or other good forage
 Lead to high concentration of manure and internal parasites in grazing material
 Can contribute greatly to herd contamination with internal parasites
 May have a “barnyard effect” in pastures that border barn and are not rotated

20. Manure pile right in yard – kids born late April – barn situated in very large pasture but kids and does tend to graze right by barn where manure concentration (and worm contamination) is highest. By late July  kid loss to worms and coccidia

21. Please note that we are talking about herds that are rotating in the spring and summer and that by late July most of these also had high worm loads
23750
3575
2250

22. Goats free range on woodlands during the day and locked in very large compound 5 pm to 8 am compound seeded to pasture in 2004herdsman noticed in Spring 2005 that kids did not go to woods with dams, instead stayed & grazed at compound  kid loss by mid July to worms and coccidia.

23. Please note that we are talking about herds that are rotating in the spring and summer and that by late July most of these also had high worm loads
18875
100
3700

24. Central graining and watering areas can also have a barnyard effect

25. On these two farms, shelter and grain troughs move with the herd from pasture to pasture eliminating barnyard effect

26. Some options to help reduce barnyard effect – Can you implement any of them?
make barnyard small enough that very little forage present
lay down gravel, concrete, or herbicides
close off access to barnyard during day and on full moon nights
provide hay in barn at night when animals come in from pasture to cut down on night grazing in the barnyard
replace barnyards with narrow lanes from pastures to barn
leave animals in rotated pastures 24 hours a day with portable shelter, water and feeders

27. “Zero” grazing
Sheep/goats raised in confinement or dry lot (with no grass) have fewer stomach worm problems.
Sheep/goats put in confinement or dry lot do not usually get re-infected with stomach worms.
Coccidiosis could be more of a problem in confinement.

28. One farm’s forage management strategy to control worms
hay feeding 30 Boer X breeding does from mid Dec through April. Herd kids in April and adult does wormed May1st.
rotational grazing of conventional pastures (6 acres) from May through July, goats stay on each area ~1 wk before rotating to next pasture – returned to each pasture in ~ 45 days. Horses follow 2 weeks after goats in most fields. Individual animals are wormed as needed. Entire herd wormed at end of July at weaning.

29. Management Strategy continued
month-long grazing of two brush pastures Aug through Sept (3 acres). Individuals wormed as needed. In 2006, entire herd fasted and wormed with 2 wormers for deer worm in October – wormers used are ones that barberpole worm already shows resistance to in herd
strip grazing of hay field regrowth from Oct until mid Dec (7 acres), animals moved to new strip every 5 to 9 days and never repeated on same strip. Individuals wormed as needed. Some years entire herd wormed Dec 15, some years entire herd wormed March 15th, some years neither worming necessary and only a few individuals wormed

30. Nutritional Management
Animals on a high plane of nutrition and in better body condition are better able to withstand worm burdens.
Nutrition in early pregnancy (fat stores) can affect the immune response to internal parasites.
Sheep receiving higher levels of protein prior to lambing have lower fecal egg counts.

31. Immune Response Good nutrition stimulates immune system
Can select goats and sheep for low fecal egg counts
Other diseases which depress immune system (e.g. coccidiosis, Johnes) can cause increased worm problems

32. Immune Response
When goat/sheep are lactating, immune system is suppressed and does not fight parasites. Arrested larvae acquired during the fall all mature simultaneously in the spring during lactation. Rationale for deworming before kidding.
Protein consumption at 130% of daily requirements reduced flush of egg laying at parturition in sheep

33. Genetic Management
Try to select for “resistant” animals

34. “Resistant” Breeds Some sheep and goat breeds are more resistant to worms.
Gulf Coast Native
Hair sheep
Barbados Blackbelly
St. Croix
Katahdin
Dorper (?)
Royal White (?)
NOT
Traditional wooled breeds
Goats
Possibly –
Spanish/Brush
Myotonic/Tennessee
Pygmy
Kiko (?)
NOT
Boer goats
Dairy goats
Angora goats
Savanna????

35. “Resistant” Individuals Parasite resistance varies between individual animals of the same breed type.
20-30 percent of flock shed most of the parasite eggs.
Focusing deworming on susceptible animals will significantly reduce pasture contamination.
BUT - Lactation and weaning are examples of environmental effects that render an animal more worm-susceptible.
Culling worm-susceptible animals that have no environmental excuse for being “wormy” should increase flock resistance and reduce pasture contamination.

36. A valuable, limited resource that must be managed properly.
Drugs
A valuable, limited resource that must be managed properly.

37. Three drug families Benzimidazoles Nicotinics Macrolides Avermectins
Chemical name ends in '..dazole
Fenbendazole, Albendazole, Oxybendazole
Nicotinics
Levamisole, Morantel, Pyrantel
Macrolides Avermectins
Ivermectin, Doramectin
Moxidectin

38. Benzimidazoles – “white drenches”
Fenbendazole – SafeGuard® or Panacur®
Albendazole – Valbazen®
Oxyfendazole – Synantic ®
Broad spectrum
Wide margin of safety
Effective against tapeworms
Valbazen
Effective against adult liver flukes.
Should not be administered to pregnant animals.

39. Nicotinics
Rumatel
Oral feed additive
Only effective against adult worms
Pyrantel
Levamisole
Broad spectrum
Effective against arrested larvae
Narrower margin of safety, especially injectable product
Levamisole - (clear drench). Tramisol ®, Levasole®, Prohibit®
Morantel– Rumatel®, Positive Goat Pellet
Pyrantel - Strongid®

40. Macrolides Ivermectin –Ivomec®, Zimecterin ®, Eprinex ®, Promectin®
Doramectin - Dectomax ®
Moxidectin – Cydectin ®, Quest ®
Broad spectrum
Wide margin of safety
Effective against (biting) external parasites
Moxidectin
Newest drug
Has “Persistent activity”

41. Extra-label drug use
Only Fenbendazole (SafeGuard®) and Morantel (Rumatel®) are FDA-approved for goats.
Only Albendazole (Valbazen ®), Ivomec ® drench, and Levamisole (drench and bolus) are FDA-approved for sheep.
Use of a product that is different than its label constitutes extra-label drug use and requires a veterinary prescription in context of valid veterinarian-patient-client relationship.
Should use exaggerated withdrawals when using drugs extra label (keep records). Check with

42. Non-chemical dewormers – not yet!
Botanical dewormers - herbs
Diatomaceous earth (DE)
No scientific studies have shown DE or other non-chemical treatments to reduce fecal egg counts
Many natural “dewormers” would have to be given at toxic levels in order to be effective
Garlic juice has shown promise?
Other
Tannins, fungus
Copper boluses (goats)
vaccine

43. Epazote Study
1) Oil of Chenopodium administered in gel capsules at a rate of 0.15ml/kg body weight is ineffective in reducing the number or viability of internal parasite eggs in NY sheep and goats. Higher dose  toxic to host animal.
A commercial organic worm discourager and a soluble soap, Basic H, were equally ineffective.

44. Dr. Francois “Faffa” MAlan CHArt
FAMACHA©
Developed in South Africa in response to the emergence of severe anthelmintic resistance
A system to assess Haemonchus contortis (barber pole worm) infection in sheep and goats and the need for deworming individual animals
Named for its originator:
Dr. Francois “Faffa” MAlan CHArt

45. FAMACHA©
Reduces the number of treatments by determining which animals to treat vs. treating whole flock.
Reduces rate at which worms become resistant to drugs by increasing “refugia” – worms that are still susceptible to drug treatment.
Identifies animals that need treatment most often and vice versa; thus offering the opportunity for genetic selection for parasite resistance assuming they have no environmental “excuse’.

46. *South Africa recommends goats be treated at categories 3, 4, and 5
FAMACHA©
Treat adults at scores 4 and 5* Treat lambs and kids at categories 3, 4, and 5
*South Africa recommends goats be treated at categories 3, 4, and 5
Clinical Category
Eye Lid Color
Packed Cell Volume
Treat? 1
Red
> 28 No 2
Red-Pink
23-27 3
Pink
18-22 ? 4
Pink-White
13-17
Yes 5
White
< 12

47. Precautions when using FAMACHA©
Only useful where Haemonchus contortis is the primary parasite species.
Cannot be used in a vacuum; other factors need to be considered when making treatment decisions.
There are other causes of pale (e.g. liver fluke) or red (e.g. fever) eye lids
Should be incorporated into an integrated parasite management (IPM) program that includes proper drug use, pasture rest and rotation, fecal egg counting, mixed species grazing, etc.)

48. Precautions when using FAMACHA©
How often should you check?
Must know if anthelmintic is effective.
FECRT
DrenchRite®
Always use card! Compare eye color to chart. Replace card after 12 months of use
Should only be used by properly trained individuals; improper use can lead to death of animals.

49. Other parasites of interest

50. Lungworms Indirect or direct life cycle
Severe infestations cause coughing, fluid in lungs, pneumonia
Transmitted in feces
Take fecal sample direct from animal (otherwise can confuse with soil nematodes)
Same control program as stomach and intestinal worms.

51. Tapeworms
Pasture mite
Life Cycle
Worms live in small intestines.
Eggs pass out through feces.
The egg is eaten by a pasture mite.
The egg hatches.
The mite is eaten by the sheep or goat.
Light loads of tapeworms tend not to be a problem, but severe infestations can cause problems.

52. Coccidia Eimera sp. (species-specific)
Single-cell protozoa that damage lining of small intestines.
Can cause bloody diarrhea that may be smeared with mucous
Damage can be permanent!
Prevent with good sanitation and proper stocking

53. Coccidiosis Suspect when animals get diarrhea after 3 weeks of age
“mucky butt” in lambs
many Eimeria species, host specific, variable pathogenicity
immunity to each species of coccidia develops with exposure
warmth and moisture permit sporulation
From Egg to infectious 1-2 days but easily survive 2-3 mo and can survive 1 year in optimum conditions
Killed by direct sunlight and low humidity (<25%)

54. Life Cycle of Eimeria spp.

55. Severe coccidiosis in goats/sheep causes many small white foci in the intestinal wall – absorption impaired

56. Fecal exams for coccidia
may have 10,000 or 100,000 per gram without disease
Egg count drops only for a short time after treatment then rebounds
none in older animal? You didn’t look!

57. Coccidiosis raise dairy kids away from adults
If possible, separate lambs and kids by age, ideally only a 2 weeks spread in age in a group
milk is protective, weaning precipitates diarrhea
coccidiostats in the milk and starter feed – decoquinate, monensin, lasalocid

58. Can use coccidiostats as additives in the feed, salt or water to help prevent:
Especially in pregnant females starting 1 month before parturition until weaning of their young. Continue in young animals after weaning.
Lasalocid (Bovatec®)1,3
Monensin (Rumensin®)2,3
Dequinate (Deccox®)1,2
Amprolium (Corid®) in water
1 - FDA-approved for sheep
2 - FDA-approved for goats 3 - TOXIC to EQUINES!!!!!!

59. Sanitation – clean and dry
keep kids and lambs out of feeders !

60. Treatment of coccidiosis
oral sulfonamides –Sulmet, Albon, etc.
amprolium mg/kg per day for 5 days = 1 ml Corid 9.6% per 8 pounds
can add to milk or directly drench
treatment temporarily decreases shedding but does not eradicate parasite – rebound in oocyst count
adequate selenium for immunity

61. Meningeal worm (deer, brain worm) Parelaphostrongylus tenuis
Parasite of White Tail Deer
Small ruminants are an abnormal host (sheep, goats, llama, alpaca)
Parasite has indirect life cycle – snails and slugs needed for infection

62.  Animals maintain appetite
Larva travel from intestinal tract to spinal cord to brain, causing 
Nerve damage (can include lameness, gait abnormality, itching)  can be as extreme as paralysis or even DEATH
 Animals maintain appetite

65. Differential diagnoses
CAE, OPP
fracture, vertebral body abscess
copper deficiency
tail docking infection
foot rot, white muscle disease
listeriosis
Polio-encephalomalacia
brain abscess
rabies
scrapie

66. Treatment of P. tenuis in aberrant hosts
no controlled studies
escalation of drug dosages
ivermectin 0.2 to 1.0 mg/kg for 1-5 d
fenbendazole 10 to 50 mg/kg for 1-5 d
usually both simultaneously
anti-inflammatories important
corticosteroids if not pregnant: dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg s.i.d. for 3-5 d
flunixin 1 mg/kg s.i.d. or b.i.d. for 3 d

67. Prevention of exposure
do not pasture at edge of woods especially during wet season
avoid low-lying poorly drained fields except under very dry conditions
fence off deer watering spots
use fields deer prefer for hay, not grazing
guardian dog may help
take advantage of hunting season!

68. Prophylaxis in aberrant host
for camelids, probably not for sheep and goats (Haemonchus resistance)
injectable ivermectin q 4-6 wk pour-ons? (not sheep or goats)
newer avermectins with longer duration?
fenbendazole
daily pyrantel not effective

69. Liver flukes
Some farms in NE US have acute or chronic liver fluke populations
Requires open water, snails (wet conditions)
Can kill adult liver flukes with Albendazole (Valbazen®) or Ivomec® Plus)

71. Fasciola hepatica common liver fluke cycle includes fresh water snails
acute peritonitis (during migration)
Often causes chronic problems afterwards
hypoproteinemia, anemia (blood leaks into bile)

72. Clinical signs

75. Fascioloides magna American deer fluke
natural parasite of deer and elk
sheep and goats abnormal hosts
larval stages continue to migrate through liver - sheep and goats don’t excrete eggs
ACUTE disease - usually fatal within 6 months

76. liver of goat killed by fluke

77. Treatment of liver flukes
fence off wet areas
albendazole – 15 to 20 mg/kg, adult flukes
clorsulon orally - adult Fasciola
3.5 mg/kg sheep, 7 mg/kg goats
clorsulon orally – 8 wk Fasciola
7 mg/kg sheep, 15 mg/kg goats
clorsulon for Fascioloides – 21 mg/kg

78. QUESTIONS?