Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use

Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use
Chapter 3: Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use. Managers who understand how costs behave are better able to predict costs and make decisions under various circumstances. This chapter explores the meaning of fixed, variable, and mixed costs (the relative proportions of which define an organization’s cost structure). It also introduces a new income statement called the contribution approach. Chapter 3

5-2 Learning Objective 1 Understand how fixed and variable costs behave and how to use them to predict costs. Learning objective number 1 is to understand how fixed and variable costs behave and how to use them to predict costs.

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable
5-3 Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable A variable cost is a cost whose total dollar amount varies in direct proportion to changes in the activity level. We discussed this table in an earlier chapter. A variable cost is a cost whose total dollar amount varies in direct proportion to changes in the activity level.

The Activity Base (also called a cost driver)
5-4 The Activity Base (also called a cost driver) Units produced Machine hours A measure of what causes the incurrence of a variable cost An activity base (also called a cost driver) is a measure of what causes the incurrence of variable costs. As the level of the activity base increases, the total variable cost increases proportionally. Units produced (or sold) is not the only activity base within companies. A cost can be considered variable if it varies with activity bases such as miles driven, machine hours, or labor hours. Miles driven Labor hours

True Variable Cost – An Example
5-5 True Variable Cost – An Example As an example of an activity base, consider overage charges on a cell phone bill. The activity base is the number of minutes used above the allowed minutes in the calling plan. Total Overage Charges on Cell Phone Bill As an example of an activity base, consider overage charges on a cell phone bill. The activity base is the number of minutes used above the allowed minutes in the calling plan. Minutes Talked

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable
5-6 Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable Variable costs remain constant if expressed on a per unit basis. Note that variable costs remain constant if expressed on a per unit basis.

Variable Cost Per Unit – An Example
5-7 Variable Cost Per Unit – An Example Referring to the cell phone example, the cost per overage minute is constant, for example 45 cents per overage minute. Per Minute Overage Charge Remember that a variable cost remains constant if expressed on a per unit basis. Referring to the cell phone example, the cost per overage minute is constant, for example 45 cents per overage minute. Minutes Talked

Extent of Variable Costs
5-8 Extent of Variable Costs The proportion of variable costs differs across organizations. For example . . . A public utility like Florida Power and Light, with large investments in equipment, will tend to have fewer variable costs. A manufacturing company like Black and Decker will often have many variable costs. The proportion of variable costs differs across organizations. For example, a public utility like Florida Power and Light, with large investments in equipment, will tend to have fewer variable costs. A manufacturing company like Black and Decker will often have many variable costs associated with the manufacture and distribution of its products to customers. A merchandising company like Wal-Mart usually has a high proportion of variable costs such as the cost of merchandise purchases. Some service companies, such as restaurants, have a high proportion of variable costs due to their raw material costs. Other service companies, such as an architectural firm, have a high proportion of fixed costs in the form of highly trained salaried employees. A merchandising company like Wal-Mart usually has a high proportion of variable costs, like cost of sales. Some service companies have high variable costs, while other service companies have high fixed costs.

Examples of Variable Costs
5-9 Examples of Variable Costs Merchandising companies – cost of goods sold. Manufacturing companies – direct materials, direct labor, and variable overhead. Merchandising and manufacturing companies – commissions, shipping costs, and clerical costs such as invoicing. Service companies – supplies, travel, and clerical. Here are some examples of variable costs that are likely present in many types of businesses. Merchandising companies  cost of goods sold. Manufacturing companies  direct materials, direct labor, and variable overhead. Merchandising and manufacturing companies  commissions, shipping costs, and clerical costs such as invoicing. Service companies  supplies, travel, and clerical.

5-10 True Variable Costs The amount of a true variable cost used during the period varies in direct proportion to the activity level. The overage charge on a cell phone bill was one example of a true variable cost. Direct material is another example of a cost that behaves in a true variable pattern. Cost The amount of a true variable cost used during the period varies in direct proportion to the activity level. The overage charge on a cell phone bill was one example of a true variable cost. Direct material is an example of a cost that behaves in a true variable pattern. Direct materials purchased but not used can be stored and carried forward to the next period of inventory. Volume

5-11 Step-Variable Costs A step-variable cost is a resource that is obtainable only in large chunks (such as maintenance workers) and whose costs change only in response to fairly wide changes in activity. Volume Cost A step-variable cost is a resource that is obtainable only in large chucks and whose costs change only in response to fairly wide changes in activity. For example, maintenance workers are often considered to be a variable cost, but this labor cost does not behave as a true variable cost.

5-12 Step-Variable Costs Small changes in the level of production are not likely to have any effect on the number of maintenance workers employed. Volume Cost Small changes in the level of production are not likely to have any effect on the number of maintenance workers employed.

5-13 Step-Variable Costs Only fairly wide changes in the activity level will cause a change in the number of maintenance workers employed. Volume Cost Only fairly wide changes in the activity level will cause a change in the number of maintenance workers employed. For example, maintenance workers are obtainable only in large chunks of a whole person who is capable of working approximately 2,000 hours a year.

The Linearity Assumption and the Relevant Range
5-14 The Linearity Assumption and the Relevant Range Relevant Range A straight line closely approximates a curvilinear variable cost line within the relevant range. Economist’s Curvilinear Cost Function Total Cost Accountant’s Straight-Line Approximation (constant unit variable cost) Part I Economists correctly point out that many costs which accountants classify as variable costs actually behave in a curvilinear fashion. Part II Nonetheless, within a narrow band of activity known as the relevant range, a curvilinear cost can be satisfactorily approximated by a straight line. Part III The relevant range is that range of activity within which the assumptions made about cost behavior are valid. Activity

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed
5-15 Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed A fixed cost is a cost whose total dollar amount remains constant as the activity level changes. Now, let’s look at fixed costs. A fixed cost is a cost whose total dollar amount remains constant as the activity level changes.

Total Fixed Cost – An Example
5-16 Total Fixed Cost – An Example For example, your cell phone bill probably includes a fixed amount related to the total minutes allowed in your calling plan. The amount does not change when you use more or less allowed minutes. Monthly Basic Cell Phone Bill For example, your cell phone bill probably includes a fixed amount related to the total minutes allowed in your calling plan. The amount does not change when you use more or less allowed minutes. Number of Minutes Used within Monthly Plan

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed
5-17 Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed Average fixed costs per unit decrease as the activity level increases. Average fixed costs per unit decrease as the activity level increases.

Fixed Cost Per Unit Example
5-18 Fixed Cost Per Unit Example For example, the fixed cost per minute used decreases as more allowed minutes are used. Cost Per Cell Phone Call For example, the fixed cost per minute used decreases as more allowed minutes are used. As you make more and more allowed calls, the basic rate cost per call decreases. If your basic rate is $39 per month and you make one allowed call per month, the average basic rate is $39 per call. However, if you make 100 allowed calls per month, the average basic rate per call drops to 39 cents per call. Number of Minutes Used within Monthly Plan

Types of Fixed Costs Committed Discretionary Examples Examples
5-19 Types of Fixed Costs Committed Long-term, cannot be significantly reduced in the short term. Discretionary May be altered in the short-term by current managerial decisions One type of fixed cost is known as committed fixed costs. These are long-term fixed costs that cannot be significantly reduced in the short term. Some examples include depreciation on buildings and equipment and real estate taxes on factory property. Another type of fixed cost is known as discretionary fixed costs. These fixed costs may be altered in the short-term by current management decisions. Some examples of discretionary fixed costs include advertising and research and development costs. A cost may be discretionary or committed depending upon management’s strategy. For example, some construction companies may layoff workers during months with minimal customer demand. However, other construction companies may opt to retain their workers all year. Examples Depreciation on Buildings and Equipment and Real Estate Taxes Examples Advertising and Research and Development

The Trend Toward Fixed Costs
5-20 The Trend Toward Fixed Costs The trend in many industries is toward greater fixed costs relative to variable costs. As machines take over many mundane tasks previously performed by humans, “knowledge workers” are demanded for their minds rather than their muscles. Knowledge workers tend to be salaried, highly-trained and difficult to replace. The cost of compensating these valued employees is relatively fixed rather than variable.1 Part I In many industries, we see a trend toward greater fixed costs, relative to variable costs. In the past fifteen years, we have seen computers and robotics take over many mundane tasks previously performed by humans. For example, H&R Block employees used to fill out tax returns for customers by hand. Now, computer software is used to complete tax returns. Safeway and Kroger employees used to key-in prices by hand on cash registers. Now, barcode readers enter price and other product information automatically. Part II In today’s world economy, knowledge workers are in demand for their experience and knowledge rather than their muscle. Most knowledge workers tend to be salaried, highly trained and very difficult to replace. The cost of these valued employees tends to be fixed rather than variable.

Is Labor a Variable or a Fixed Cost?
5-21 Is Labor a Variable or a Fixed Cost? The behavior of wage and salary costs can differ across countries, depending on labor regulations, labor contracts, and custom. In France, Germany, China, and Japan, management has little flexibility in adjusting the size of the labor force. Labor costs are more fixed in nature. In the United States and the United Kingdom, management has greater latitude. Labor costs are more variable in nature. In France, Germany, China, and Japan, management has little flexibility in adjusting the size of the labor force; hence, labor costs are more fixed in nature. In the United States and United Kingdom, management typically has much greater latitude to adjust the size of the labor force; hence, labor costs are more variable in nature. Within countries managers can view labor costs differently depending upon their strategy. Nonetheless, most companies in the United States continue to view direct labor as a variable cost. Within countries managers can view labor costs differently depending upon their strategy. Most companies in the United States continue to view direct labor as a variable cost.

Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range
5-22 Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range 90 The relevant range of activity for a fixed cost is the range of activity over which the graph of the cost is flat. Relevant Range 60 Rent Cost in Thousands of Dollars The relevant range of activity for a fixed cost is the range of activity over which the graph of the cost is flat. 30 , , , Rented Area (Square Feet)

5-23 Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range For example, assume office space is available at a rental rate of $30,000 per year in increments of 1,000 square feet. Fixed costs would increase in a step fashion at a rate of $30,000 for each additional 1,000 square feet. For example, assume office space is available at a rental rate of $30,000 per year in increments of 1,000 square feet. Fixed costs would increase in a step fashion at a rate of $30,000 for each additional 1,000 square feet.

5-24 Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range Step-variable costs can be adjusted more quickly as conditions change and . . . The width of the activity steps is much wider for the fixed cost. The question becomes, how do changes in fixed costs outside the relevant range differ from step-variable costs? While this step-function pattern appears similar to the idea of step-variable costs, there are two important differences between step-variable costs and fixed costs. First, step-variable costs can often be adjusted quickly as conditions change, whereas fixed costs cannot be changed easily. The second difference is that the width of the steps for fixed costs is wider than the width of the steps for step-variable costs. For example, a step-variable cost such as maintenance workers may have steps with a width of 40 hours a week. However, fixed costs may have steps that have a width of thousands or tens of thousands of hours of activity. How does this step-function pattern differ from a step-variable cost?

Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true?
5-25 Quick Check  Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true? Fixed costs per unit vary with the level of activity. Variable costs per unit are constant within the relevant range. Total fixed costs are constant within the relevant range. Total variable costs are constant within the relevant range. See how you do on this question. There can be more than one correct answer. Be careful and take your time.

Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true?
5-26 Quick Check  Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true? Fixed costs per unit vary with the level of activity. Variable costs per unit are constant within the relevant range. Total fixed costs are constant within the relevant range. Total variable costs are constant within the relevant range. Answer d is not correct because total variable costs increase as activity increases, within the relevant range, and decrease as activity decreases, within the relevant range.

Mixed Costs (also called semivariable costs)
5-27 Mixed Costs (also called semivariable costs) A mixed cost contains both variable and fixed elements. Consider the example of utility cost. X Y Total mixed cost Total Utility Cost Mixed costs (also called semivariable costs) contain both variable and fixed cost elements. The graph depicts the mixed costs of a normal utility bill. As illustrated in the graph, a utility bill contains a fixed and a variable cost component. The fixed portion of the utility bill is constant regardless of kilowatt hours consumed. This cost represents the minimum cost that is incurred to have the service ready and available for use. The variable portion of the utility bill varies in direct proportion to the consumption of kilowatt hours. Variable Cost per KW Fixed Monthly Utility Charge Activity (Kilowatt Hours)

Fixed Monthly Utility Charge
5-28 Mixed Costs X Y Total mixed cost Total Utility Cost The mixed cost line can be expressed with the equation Y = a + bX. This equation should look familiar, from your algebra and statistics classes. In the equation, Y is the total mixed cost; a is the total fixed cost (or the vertical intercept of the line); b is the variable cost per unit of activity (or the slope of the line), and X is the actual level of activity. In our utility example, Y is the total mixed cost; a is the total fixed monthly utility charge; b is the cost per kilowatt hour consumed, and X is the number of kilowatt hours consumed. Variable Cost per KW Fixed Monthly Utility Charge Activity (Kilowatt Hours)

Mixed Costs – An Example
5-29 Mixed Costs – An Example If your fixed monthly utility charge is $40, your variable cost is $0.03 per kilowatt hour, and your monthly activity level is 2,000 kilowatt hours, what is the amount of your utility bill? Y = a + bX Y = $40 + ($0.03 × 2,000) Y = $100 Part I Read through this short question to see if you can calculate the total utility bill for the month. Part II The total bill is $100. How did you do?

Analysis of Mixed Costs
5-30 Analysis of Mixed Costs Account Analysis and the Engineering Approach In account analysis, each account is classified as either variable or fixed based on the analyst’s knowledge of how the account behaves. The engineering approach classifies costs based upon an industrial engineer’s evaluation of production methods, and material, labor and overhead requirements. In account analysis, each account under consideration is classified as variable and fixed based on the analyst’s prior knowledge about how costs behave. This approach is limited in value in the sense that it glosses over the fact that some accounts may have both fixed and variable components. The engineering approach classifies costs based upon an industrial engineer’s evaluation of production methods, materials specifications, labor requirements, equipment usage, power consumption, and so on. This approach is particularly useful when no past experience is available concerning activity and costs.

Why and how to reduce fixed costs or switch them to variable costs?
Typical fixed costs: production facilities, rentals, employees salaries and related benefits and utilities Converting them into variable may reduce risk of financial commitment and provide flexibility of capacity utilisation Outsourcing Business with fast and regular change and/or large varieties of products most likely will benefit from this approach e.g. Nike and Apple Non-core business functions with lower value-add to majority customers e.g. call centers for enquiries, 3rd party logistics, broker- dealers’ securities back office operations Offshoring Honda and Toyota Thailand plants HSBC back office functions in China Converting fixed costs to variable costs through outsourcing (e.g. engaging a third party to perform the task) provides the needed flexibility, and free-up capital commitments and investments in a) plant and machinery. Services and production are tied to the delivery of services and products instead of capacity requirement for the peak demand. Typical examples include Nike outsourcing most of its production to different suppliers who can handle different designs and materials Apple outsourcing its production to Foxconn in China b) non-core business activities so that the company can focus on its strength and core business. Examples include Call centers for banks and telecos being sourced to India and Philippines companies Third party logistics for delivery and storage of goods and materials locally and overseas Securities companies’ back office operations being outsourced to banks such as HSBC back office services. Offshoring (e.g. relocating production facilities to cheaper overseas locations) may help reduce operating costs for core business functions without relying on 3rd party suppliers. Relocate production facilities to China, Vietnam, India …. May help companies benefit from lower operating costs. Honda and Toyota have manufacturing facilities in Thailand to supply cars for different Asia-pacific countries HSBC performs some of its worldwide back office functions in China

Use a scattergraph plot to diagnose cost behavior.
5-32 Learning Objective 2 Use a scattergraph plot to diagnose cost behavior. Learning objective number 2 is to use a scattergraph plot to diagnose cost behavior.

The Scattergraph Method
5-33 The Scattergraph Method Plot the data points on a graph (Total Cost Y vs. Activity X). * Maintenance Cost 1,000’s of Dollars 10 20 Patient-days in 1,000’s X Y A scattergraph plot (also called the quick-and-dirty method) is a quick and easy way to isolate the fixed and variable components of a mixed cost. The first step when using this method to analyze a mixed cost is to plot the data on the scattergraph. The cost, which is known as the dependent variable, is plotted on the Y (vertical) axis. The activity, which is known as the independent variable, is plotted on the X (horizontal) axis. The second step is to examine the dots on the scattergraph to see if they are linear, such that a straight line can be drawn that approximates the relation between cost and activity. If the dots are not linear, do not analyze the data any further. Instead, search for another independent variable that bears a stronger linear relationship with the dependent variable. If there does appear to be a linear relationship between the level of activity and cost, we will continue our analysis.

5-34 The Scattergraph Method Draw a line through the data points with about an equal numbers of points above and below the line. * Maintenance Cost 1,000’s of Dollars 10 20 Patient-days in 1,000’s X Y The third step is to draw a straight line where, roughly speaking, an equal number of points reside above and below the line. Make sure that the straight line goes through at least one data point on the scattergraph.

5-35 The Scattergraph Method Use one data point to estimate the total level of activity and the total cost. * Maintenance Cost 1,000’s of Dollars 10 20 Patient-days in 1,000’s X Y Total maintenance cost = $11,000 Intercept = Fixed cost: $10,000 Part I The fourth step is to identify the Y intercept. This is the point where the straight line crosses the Y axis determines the estimate of total fixed costs. In this case, the fixed costs are $10,000. Part II The fifth step is to estimate the variable cost per unit of the activity. Select one data point on the scattergraph that intersects the straight line. Determine the total cost ($11,000) and the total activity level (800 patient-days) at the chosen point. Patient days = 800

5-36 The Scattergraph Method Make a quick estimate of variable cost per unit and determine the cost equation. Variable cost per unit = $1, = $1.25/patient-day Part I Subtract the fixed costs from the total costs to arrive at the total variable costs ($1,000) for the chosen activity level. Part II Divide the total variable costs by the activity level at the chosen point. This is the variable cost per unit of activity ($1.25). Construct an equation that can be used to estimate total costs at any activity level. Part III Our maintenance cost equation tells us that the Y, the total maintenance cost, is $10,000, the total fixed cost, plus $1.25 times X, the number of patient days. Y = $10,000 + $1.25X Number of patient days Total maintenance cost

Analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method.
5-37 Learning Objective 3 Analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method. Learning objective number 3 is to analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method.

The High-Low Method – An Example
5-38 The High-Low Method – An Example Assume the following hours of maintenance work and the total maintenance costs for six months. The high-low method can be used to analyze mixed costs if a scattergraph plot reveals a linear relationship between the X and Y variables. For illustrative purposes, assume the following information.

5-39 The High-Low Method – An Example The variable cost per hour of maintenance is equal to the change in cost divided by the change in hours. Part I The first step is to choose the data points pertaining to the highest and lowest activity levels. In this case, the high level of activity was in June at 850 hours of maintenance and the low level of activity is in February with 450 hours of maintenance. Notice that this method relies upon two data points to estimate the fixed and variable portions of a mixed cost, as opposed to one data point with the scattergraph method. Part II The second step is to determine the total costs associated with the two chosen points. We incurred costs of $9,800 at the high level of activity and $7,400 at the low level of activity. The third step is to calculate the change in cost between the two data points. The change in maintenance hours was 400 hours and the change in maintenance dollars was $2,400. Notice, this method relies upon two data points to estimate the fixed and variable portions of a mixed costs, as opposed to one data point with the scattergraph method. For this example, we divide $2,400 by 400 and determine that the variable cost per hour of maintenance is $6.00. = $6.00/hour $2,

5-40 The High-Low Method – An Example Total Fixed Cost = Total Cost – Total Variable Cost Part I The fourth step is to take the total cost at either activity level (in this case, $9,800). Part II Deduct the variable cost component ($6 per hour times 850 hours) for the total cost of $9,800. Part III The difference represents the estimate of total fixed costs ($4,700). Total Fixed Cost = $9,800 – ($6/hour × 850 hours) Total Fixed Cost = $9,800 – $5,100 Total Fixed Cost = $4,700

5-41 The High-Low Method – An Example The fifth step is to construct an equation that can be used to estimate the total cost at any activity level (Y = $4,700 + $6.00X). The basic equation of Y is equal to $4,700 (the total fixed cost) plus $6 times the actual level of activity. You can verify the equation by calculating total maintenance costs at 450 hours, the low level of activity. It will be worth your time to make the calculation. Y = $4,700 + $6.00X The Cost Equation for Maintenance

5-42 Quick Check  Sales salaries and commissions are $10,000 when 80,000 units are sold, and $14,000 when 120,000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the variable portion of sales salaries and commission? a. $0.08 per unit b. $0.10 per unit c. $0.12 per unit d. $0.125 per unit See if you can apply what we have just discussed to determine the variable portion of sales salaries and commissions for this company.

5-43 Quick Check  Sales salaries and commissions are $10,000 when 80,000 units are sold, and $14,000 when 120,000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the variable portion of sales salaries and commission? a. $0.08 per unit b. $0.10 per unit c. $0.12 per unit d. $0.125 per unit $4,000 ÷ 40,000 units = $0.10 per unit The correct answer is variable sales salaries and commission costs of 10 cents per unit.

5-44 Quick Check  Sales salaries and commissions are $10,000 when 80,000 units are sold, and $14,000 when 120,000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the fixed portion of sales salaries and commissions? a. $ 2,000 b. $ 4,000 c. $10,000 d. $12,000 Using the same data, calculate the total fixed cost portion of sales salaries and commissions.

5-45 Quick Check  Sales salaries and commissions are $10,000 when 80,000 units are sold, and $14,000 when 120,000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the fixed portion of sales salaries and commissions? a. $ 2,000 b. $ 4,000 c. $10,000 d. $12,000 The calculation of the answer is a bit more complex, but we see that total fixed cost equals $2,000.

Least-Squares Regression Method
5-46 Least-Squares Regression Method A method used to analyze mixed costs if a scattergraph plot reveals an approximately linear relationship between the X and Y variables. This method uses all of the data points to estimate the fixed and variable cost components of a mixed cost. This method can be used to analyze mixed costs if a scattergraph plot reveals an approximately linear relationship between the X and Y variables. The least-squares regression method is a more sophisticated approach to isolating the fixed and variable portion of a mixed cost. This method uses all of the data points to estimate the fixed and variable cost components of a mixed cost. This method is superior to the scattergraph plot method that relies upon only one data point and the high-low method that uses only two data points to estimate the fixed and variable cost components of a mixed cost. The basic goal of this method is to fit a straight line to the data that minimizes the sum of the squared errors. The regression errors are the vertical deviations from the data points to the regression line. The goal of this method is to fit a straight line to the data that minimizes the sum of the squared errors.

5-47 Least-Squares Regression Method Software can be used to fit a regression line through the data points. The cost analysis objective is the same: Y = a + bX The formulas that are used for least-squares regression are complex. Fortunately, computer software can perform the calculations quickly. The observed values of the X and Y variables are entered into the computer program and all necessary calculations are made. The output from the regression analysis can be used to create an equation that enables you to estimate total costs at any activity level. The key statistic to look at when evaluating regression results is called R squared, which is a measure of the “goodness of fit.” In the appendix to this chapter, we show you how to use Microsoft Excel to complete a least-squares regression analysis. Least-squares regression also provides a statistic, called the R2, which is a measure of the goodness of fit of the regression line to the data points.

5-48 Least-Squares Regression Method R2 is the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable (total cost) that is explained by variation in the independent variable (activity). Y 20 * * * * * * * * * * Total Cost 10 The R square value quantifies the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable that is explained by variation in the independent variable. The R square varies from 0% to 100%, and the higher the percentage the better. This example assumes that a single factor drives the variable cost component of a mixed cost. If more than one factor drives the variable cost component, multiple regression can be used to perform the mixed cost analysis. R2 varies from 0% to 100%, and the higher the percentage the better. X Activity

Comparing Results From the Three Methods
5-49 Comparing Results From the Three Methods The three methods just discussed provide slightly different estimates of the fixed and variable cost components of the mixed cost. This is to be expected because each method uses differing amounts of the data points to provide estimates. Least-squares regression provides the most accurate estimate because it uses all the data points. The three methods just discussed provide slightly different estimates of the fixed and variable portions of a mixed cost. This is to be expected because each method uses differing amounts of the data points to provide estimates. Least-squares regression provides the most accurate estimates because it uses all of the data points.

Prepare an income statement using the contribution format.
5-50 Learning Objective 4 Prepare an income statement using the contribution format. Learning objective number 4 is to prepare an income statement using the contribution format.

The Contribution Format
5-51 The Contribution Format Let’s put our knowledge of cost behavior to work by preparing a contribution format income statement. The contribution approach provides an income statement format geared directly to cost behavior, which has been the focus of discussion in this chapter.

5-52 The Contribution Format The contribution margin format emphasizes cost behavior. Contribution margin covers fixed costs and provides for income. The contribution approach separates costs into fixed and variable categories. Sales less variable costs equals contribution margin. The contribution margin less fixed costs equals net operating income.

Uses of the Contribution Format
5-53 Uses of the Contribution Format The contribution income statement format is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. We will use this approach for: Cost-volume-profit analysis (Chapter 4). Budgeting (Chapter 10). Segmented reporting of profit data (Chapter 13). Special decisions such as pricing and make-or-buy analysis (Chapter 14). This approach is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. For example, this approach is useful for and discussed further in Cost-volume-profit analysis (Chapter 4), Budgeting (Chapter 10), Segmented reporting of profit data (Chapter 13), Special decisions such as pricing and make or buy analysis (Chapter 14).

5-54 The Contribution Format The contribution format allocates costs based on cost behavior. The contribution approach differs from the traditional approach illustrated in an earlier chapter. The traditional approach organizes costs in a functional format. Costs relating to production, administration, and sales are grouped together without regard to their cost behavior. The traditional approach is used primarily for external reporting purposes. Used primarily for external reporting. Used primarily by management.

Least-Squares Regression Computations
5-55 Least-Squares Regression Computations Appendix 3 A: Least-Squares Regression Computation. In this appendix, we will show you how to use Microsoft Excel to determine the key variable necessary for least-squares regression. As you have seen, we need three pieces of information: the estimated variable cost per unit (the slope of the line), the estimated fixed cost (the intercept), and R squared. Let’s get started. I think you will find that using Microsoft Excel is quite easy. Appendix 3A

Analyze a mixed cost using the least-squares regression method.
5-56 Learning Objective 5 Analyze a mixed cost using the least-squares regression method. Learning objective number 5 is to analyze a mixed cost using the least-squares regression method.

Simple Regression Analysis – An Example
5-57 Simple Regression Analysis – An Example Matrix, Inc. wants to know its average fixed cost and variable cost per unit. Using the data to the right, let’s see how to do a regression using Microsoft Excel. Assume that you have the following data set and that you wish to use Microsoft Excel to estimate the variable and fixed cost components of your total meals cost. Matrix, Inc. has gathered 16 month’s of information concerning the number of meals prepared and the total cost of preparing them each month. We will use these data in our least-squares regression model. Using Microsoft Excel, we will estimate the variable and fixed cost components of the total meals cost.

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example
5-58 Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example You will need three pieces of information from your regression analysis: Estimated Variable Cost Per Unit (line slope) Estimated Fixed Costs (line intercept) Goodness of fit, or R2 You will need to calculate three pieces of information: the estimated variable cost per unit (called the slope of the line), the estimated fixed cost (called the intercept), and the R squared value. To get these three pieces of information you will need three Excel functions. These functions are named SLOPE, INTERCEPT, and RSQ. “SLOPE” provides us with the slope of the line; “INTERCEPT” gives us the fixed cost intercept; and “RSQ” yields the R squared value. Load Excel on your computer and enter the data shown in the table on the right side of your screen. Start with the headings in cell B3, C3, and D3. Enter the months in column B, the total cost in column C, and the number of meals in column D. When finished entering this data, go to the next screen. To get these three pieces information we will need to use three Excel functions. SLOPE, INTERCEPT, and RSQ

5-59 Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Place your cursor in cell F4 and press the = key. Click on the pull down menu and scroll down to “More Functions . . .” The first step within Excel is to place your cursor in cell F4 and press the = key. Look to the left of your screen and you will see the “Special Functions” pull-down menu. Click on the pull-down arrow to the right of the “Special Functions” tab and scroll down to select “More Functions.”

5-60 Scroll down to the “Statistical”, functions. Now scroll down the statistical functions until you highlight “SLOPE” When the function box opens, click on the “Statistical” category and then on “SLOPE.”

5-61 Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example The “Function Arguments” window will pop-up for “SLOPE.” The first blank space is for “Known_y’s.” We want to enter the total cost for each month in this space. To do this, click on cell C4, hold down the mouse button and drag down to cell C19. Now, release the mouse button and C4:C19 will appear in the first space. We have now entered the total cost. Move your cursor down to the second space named “Known_x’s.” We want to enter the number of meals in this space. Click on cell D4, hold down the mouse button and drag down to cell D19 (D4:D19). Release the mouse button and you have entered the number of meals. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C4:C19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D4:D19 for the range.

Here is the estimate of the slope of the line.
5-62 Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Here is the estimate of the slope of the line. The slope, or estimated variable cost per unit, is identified on the screen as shown. Look at your screen to locate the This is the estimate of the slope of the line. Now look at your cell F4 and make sure it looks just like the cell contents on this screen. If you have 2.77 rounded and your cell F4 looks like the one on your screen, press the enter key. You have calculated the slope of the line, which is the first piece of vital information. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C4:C19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D4:D19 for the range.

5-63 With your cursor in cell F5, press the = key and go to the pull down menu for “Special Functions.” Select Statistical and scroll down to highlight the INTERCEPT function. Move your cursor to cell F5 and press the = key. Return to the “Special Functions” area and click on the down arrow. The “Statistical” function should now be selected. Scroll the “Select a Function” window until you find “INTERCEPT.” Click on “INTERCEPT” to select this function.

Here is the estimate of the fixed costs.
Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example 5-64 Here is the estimate of the fixed costs. Once again, we are asked to enter the “Known_y’s” and “Known_x’s.” Follow the same procedures we used earlier to enter the total cost in the “Known_y’s” and the number of meals in the “Known_x’s” spaces. The estimated fixed cost is identified on the screen as shown. This is the second piece of information needed. Notice that Excel has already calculated the estimated fixed costs at $2, If you find this amount and your cell F5 looks like the one on the screen, press the enter key. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C4:C19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D4:D19 for the range.

5-65 Finally, we will determine the “goodness of fit”, or R2, by using the RSQ function. Move your cursor to cell F6, press the equal key, and select the “Special Functions” section of Excel. You are already in “Statistical,” so scroll until you find the special function “RSQ” (or R squared). Click on “RSQ” and you are ready to enter the necessary data.

Here is the estimate of R2.
Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example 5-66 Here is the estimate of R2. Once again, the function arguments window asks you to enter the “Known_y’s” and “Known_x’s.” Follow the same procedure to enter total cost in the “Known_y’s” and the number of meals in the “Known_x’s.” Look in the arguments window and notice that the R squared is equal to 93.3%. That is an excellent R squared. If you calculated this value for R squared and your cell F6 looks like the one on your screen, press the enter key. You have now completed gathering all the information necessary. Using Excel to solve a least-squares regression problem is very easy. It is very important that you understand the output from these special functions. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C4:C19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D4:D19 for the range.

End of Chapter 3 End of chapter 3.

Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use

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