1. The Framebuffer February 6, 2003

2. A Configurable Pixel Cache for Fast Image Generation, Gorris et al. Problem Processor speeds have increased to the point that the frame buffer is now the bottleneck. Processor speeds have increased to the point that the frame buffer is now the bottleneck.Solution Cache Memories Cache Memories

3. Overview Three considerations in frame buffer design: Input mechanism to the frame buffer Input mechanism to the frame buffer RAM used to store the image RAM used to store the image Output mechanism used by the frame buffer to refresh the display Output mechanism used by the frame buffer to refresh the display Traditional approach: Sequential memory locations lie along a scan line Sequential memory locations lie along a scan line Sequential pixels provided at a high rate to refresh the display Sequential pixels provided at a high rate to refresh the display refresh requires significant percentage of RAM bandwidth

4. Pixel-cache Approach Pixel-cache holds a tile of frame buffer pixels High speed scan converter calculates intensity one pixel at a time Scan converter writes pixels serially into a pixel cache Once the bounds of the tile are exceeded, the contents are transferred in parallel to the frame buffer

5. Assumptions Tiles are non-overlapping and aligned on boundaries that are integer multiples of their height and width Why? Quick mapping between scan converter addresses and tile/bit addresses F scan (x, y) = MSBs tile (x,y) + LSBs bit (x, y) F scan (x, y) = MSBs tile (x,y) + LSBs bit (x, y) Tile address is used to access a tile of pixels in the frame buffer Bit Address is used to access individual pixels within the cache

6. Implementation Pixel cache Single 48-pin Integrated Circuit (IC) Single 48-pin Integrated Circuit (IC) 1.6 micron CMOS 1.6 micron CMOS 3700 gates 3700 gates 16.6 MHz 16.6 MHz Frame buffer 256K-bit VRAM 256K-bit VRAM 4x4 or 16x1 tiles 4x4 or 16x1 tiles

7. Main Components Data Cache: stores pixel intensity data from the scan converter data port is bi-directional for fast reads and writes data port is bi-directional for fast reads and writes Source Register: holds current tile being written to frame buffer frame buffer writes overlapped with data cache input frame buffer writes overlapped with data cache input Replacement Rule Register/Logic: used for boolean operations on the frame buffer data from scan converter can be used with old frame buffer data being written back to the frame buffer data from scan converter can be used with old frame buffer data being written back to the frame buffer

8. Components – cont. Destination Register: holds existing contents of frame buffer used by replacement rule logic to perform boolean logic with incoming pixel data and committed frame buffer data used by replacement rule logic to perform boolean logic with incoming pixel data and committed frame buffer data operation can be overlapped with data cache writes and source register transfers operation can be overlapped with data cache writes and source register transfers Pattern Register: holds frame buffer data to be blended with scan converter data similar to destination register similar to destination register useful for generating repeating patterns useful for generating repeating patterns Z Cache & Z Pipeline Register: used to buffer depth information equivalent to data cache and source register but for z data equivalent to data cache and source register but for z data

9. Tile Organization Larger tiles give higher performance more pixel updates per frame buffer memory cycle more pixel updates per frame buffer memory cycle but increase the size and cost of the pixel cache but increase the size and cost of the pixel cache Number of pixels updated is function of organization and operation performed randomly oriented vectors – square tiles randomly oriented vectors – square tiles horizontal vectors – linear horizontal tile structure horizontal vectors – linear horizontal tile structure See Figures 4 and 5 See Figures 4 and 5 No Silver Bullet

10. Z-Buffer Requires storing the z value for each displayed pixel both pixel intensity and z value are updated or left alone both pixel intensity and z value are updated or left alone Idea: read several z values in parallel and overlap compare and update with writing of previously updated values to memory

11. Requirements Take advantage of unused video ram 1280x1024 w/ 256k VRAM = 728x1024 free 1280x1024 w/ 256k VRAM = 728x1024 free Reconfigurable frame buffer 8 to 32 planes in multiples of 8 planes 8 to 32 planes in multiples of 8 planes Allow z-buffering on all configurations Off-screen frame buffer memory should not limit z resolution

12. Z-Buffer Cache See the paper

13. Performance Dependent upon rate at which pixels are stored in the cache rate at which pixels are stored in the cache cache hit rate cache hit rate time to write a tile to the frame buffer time to write a tile to the frame bufferLine-drawing random 30-pixel vectors with 4x4 tiles random 30-pixel vectors with 4x4 tiles 9 Mpixels/sec or 300,000 vectors/sec with cache 9 Mpixels/sec or 300,000 vectors/sec with cache 1/3 the performance without cache 1/3 the performance without cachePolygons random 30x30 pixel squares with 16x1 tiles random 30x30 pixel squares with 16x1 tiles 15 Mpixels/sec or 16,000 polygons/sec with cache 15 Mpixels/sec or 16,000 polygons/sec with cache 1/5 the performance without cache 1/5 the performance without cache

14. Aliasing and Anti-Aliasing, Moller and Haines Anti-aliasing is the process of removing visual artifacts or more specifically jaggies Need sampling and filtering rendering an image is a sampling task rendering an image is a sampling task texels need to be resampled for texture mapping to give good results texels need to be resampled for texture mapping to give good results a sequence of images for animation need to be sampled at uniform time intervals a sequence of images for animation need to be sampled at uniform time intervals

15. Sampling Want to represent information (signals) digitally to reduce the amount of information note: too little information can cause aliasing note: too little information can cause aliasing To reconstruct the original signal, sampling frequency needs to be more than 2x maximum frequency of the signal sampled (Nyquist) This implies a signal is bandlimited In 3D graphics, point samples (edges of polygons) are not bandlimited BUT textures are!

16. Reconstruction How do we recreate the original signal? Box filter (nearest neighbor) worst filter to use (noncontinuous) worst filter to use (noncontinuous) but simple but simple Tent filter (aka triangle filter) better than box filter (continuous) better than box filter (continuous) Ideal lowpass filter (sinc filter) perfect reconstruction perfect reconstruction but impractical – filter width can become infinite and negative but impractical – filter width can become infinite and negative

17. Resampling Used to magnify or minify a sample Magnification is the simpler case have continuous signal (remember the sinc filter) have continuous signal (remember the sinc filter) just resample at desired intervals just resample at desired intervalsMinification frequency of original sample is too high to avoid aliasing frequency of original sample is too high to avoid aliasing need to refilter the signal (see the paper) need to refilter the signal (see the paper)

18. Screen-Based Anti-Aliasing Screen based anti-aliasing has no knowledge of objects being rendered General strategy use a sampling pattern for the screen and then weight and sum the samples to produce a pixel color use a sampling pattern for the screen and then weight and sum the samples to produce a pixel color

19. Supersampling - FSAA Supersampling: Anti-aliasing algorithm that takes more than one sample per pixel Full-Scene Anti-aliasing (FSAA) renders the scene at a higher resolution renders the scene at a higher resolution averages the neighboring samples to create an image averages the neighboring samples to create an image common in consumer hardware common in consumer hardware costly but simple costly but simple

20. Supersampling – Accumulation Buffer Accumulation Buffer buffer that has the same resolution as the desired image but more bits of color buffer that has the same resolution as the desired image but more bits of color view is moved half a pixel in the screen x- or y- direction as needed, images are summed in the accumulation buffer then after rendering they are averaged view is moved half a pixel in the screen x- or y- direction as needed, images are summed in the accumulation buffer then after rendering they are averaged part of OpenGL part of OpenGL costly for real-time rendering costly for real-time rendering

21. Supersampling – T-buffer T-buffer variant of accumulation buffer variant of accumulation buffer 2 n image and z-buffers used for rendering 2 n image and z-buffers used for rendering some logic to determine what buffer gets what data and how the buffers are combined (averaged) some logic to determine what buffer gets what data and how the buffers are combined (averaged) data can be sent to all buffers simultaneously data can be sent to all buffers simultaneously screen offsets (x- and y-) can be set per buffer screen offsets (x- and y-) can be set per buffer Benefits for anti-aliasing? work can be done in parallel work can be done in parallel no programming needed to support anti-aliasing (single pass) no programming needed to support anti-aliasing (single pass)

22. Multisampling – A-buffer A-buffer computes a polygons approximate coverage of each grid cell computes a polygons approximate coverage of each grid cell takes more than one sample per pixel in a single pass takes more than one sample per pixel in a single pass shares computations among the samples for a grid cell shares computations among the samples for a grid cell Commonly used in software to generate high quality renderings but not in real-time Focused on edge anti-aliasing and transparency

23. Limitations Limitations size of the coverage mask size of the coverage mask even at 8x8 aliasing is still visible box filter often used for simplicity box filter often used for simplicity worst filter

24. Gaussian Filters Benefit: allows samples to affect more than one pixel Approximation of sinc function with limits (removes infinite and negative width) Generically referred to as Gaussian filters due to basis on the Gaussian bell curve equation

25. Quincunx (NVIDIA) Real-time anti-aliasing scheme with samples that affect more than one pixel Quincunx means an arrangement of five objects, four of them in a square and the fifth in the center Pattern approximates a 2D tent filter Uses a weighted average for the samples center sample – 1/2 weight center sample – 1/2 weight corner samples – 1/8 weight corner samples – 1/8 weight Superior to FSAA but can introduce error

26. So far so good… Not every object on the screen can be perfectly sampled Ex. arbitrarily small objects Ex. arbitrarily small objects Regular sampling patterns will always exhibit some form of aliasing Solution? Distribute samples randomly over a pixel and use a different sampling pattern per pixel

27. Stochastic Sampling Why does it work? Randomization tends to replace repetitive aliasing with noise which our visualize system is more tolerant of Jittering – most common stochastic sampling method assume N samples per pixel assume N samples per pixel divide the pixel area into N regions of equal area divide the pixel area into N regions of equal area place a sample randomly in each region place a sample randomly in each region final pixel color is computed by an average of the samples final pixel color is computed by an average of the samples Notable: 3Dlabs SuperScene antialiasing hardware scheme uses jittering

28. Other Sampling Interleaved sampling ATI SMOOTHVISION ATI SMOOTHVISION AT&T Pixel Machines AT&T Pixel Machines SGI VGX SGI VGX Poisson disk sampling pattern in which nonuniformly distributed points are seperated by a minimum distance pattern in which nonuniformly distributed points are seperated by a minimum distance Molnars scheme adaptive refinement adaptive refinement useful in interactive applications useful in interactive applications sampling rate kept low while the scene changes and is increased as the scene becomes static sampling rate kept low while the scene changes and is increased as the scene becomes static