1. TIME TO ACT
Type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.

2. Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease which has been described as a state of raised blood glucose (hyperglycaemia) associated with premature mortality.
Hyperglycaemia seriously damages many of the body’s systems, especially the blood vessels and nerves.
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

3. Type 1 and type 2 diabetes Diabetes arises when the beta cells in the
pancreas fail to produce enough of the hormone
insulin - type 1 diabetes
Or when the body cannot effectively use the insulin
produced - type 2 diabetes.
90% of people with diabetes have type 2 diabetes.
The information in this and the previous slide can be found in the IDF publications: ‘Time to Act – Diabetes and cardiovascular disease’ and ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.52
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

4. The pancreas Kidneys Pancreas Stomach
From the IDF publication: ‘Time to Act – Diabetes and cardiovascular disease’, p. 13
Stomach
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

5. Insulin
Insulin is a hormone that allows cells to extract glucose from the blood and use it for energy.
Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the pancreas.
It regulates protein and lipid metabolism.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

6. Insulin and diabetes When a person has diabetes, either:
their pancreas does not produce the insulin they need - type 1 diabetes
or their body cannot use this insulin effectively – type 2 diabetes.
This leads to an increase in the amount of glucose in the blood. This high concentration of glucose or ’high blood sugar’ is termed hyperglycaemia.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes care and prevention’, p.7
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

7. Hormones
Synthesised in glands, hormones are chemical signaling molecules which have a specific regulatory effect upon the activity of body tissues.
Hormones are transported around the body in the blood so that they can act on tissues at a distance from the gland in which they were produced.
Hormones can only act in those tissues where they have specific receptors in the cells.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.53
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

8. Tissue damage
Chronic elevation of blood glucose eventually leads to tissue damage.
The kidneys, eyes, peripheral nerves and vascular tree manifest the most significant diabetic complications.
The mechanism for this is complex and not yet fully understood. It involves:
The direct toxic effects of high glucose levels
The impact of elevated blood pressure
Abnormal lipid levels
Functional and structural abnormalities of small blood vessels
Chronic elevation of blood glucose, even when no symptoms are present to alert the individual to the presence of diabetes, will eventually lead to tissue damage, with consequent, and often serious, disease.
Whilst evidence of tissue damage can be found in many organ systems it is the kidneys, eyes, peripheral nerves and vascular tree which manifest the most significant, and sometimes fatal, diabetic complications.
Modified from the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas – Executive Summary, Second Edition, p.13
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

9. The short term effects of diabetes
Out-of-control diabetes, when severe, leads to the body using stored fat for energy and a subsequent build-up of acids (ketone bodies) in the blood. This is known as ketoacidosis and is associated with very high glucose levels. It requires emergency treatment and can lead to coma and even death.
Recurrent or persistent infections (including tuberculosis).
Both hyperglycaemia and hypoglycaemia (abnormally low blood glucose resulting from treatment) may cause coma and, if untreated, may be fatal.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Cost Effective Approaches to Diabetes Care and Prevention’, p.7
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

10. The long term effects of diabetes
The long term effects of diabetes can be divided into
macrovascular complications
microvascular complications.
Macrovascular complications affect the larger blood vessels, such as those supplying blood to the heart, brain and legs. The most common macrovascular fatal complication is coronary artery disease. Strokes are also a common cause of disability and death in people with diabetes.
Microvascular complications affect the small blood vessels, such as those supplying blood to the eyes and kidneys. The microvascular complications of diabetes are retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Cost Effective Approaches to Diabetes Care and Prevention’, p. 7
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

11. The major diabetic complications
Stroke
(cerebrovascular disease)
Visual impairment:
diabetic retinopathy,
cataract and glaucoma
Heart disease
(cardiovascular disease)
Bacterial and fungal
infections of the skin
Kidney disease
(diabetic nephropathy)
Severe hardening of
the arteries (atherosclerosis)
Autonomic neuropathy
(including slow emptying
of the stomach and diarrhea)
Sexual dysfunction
Poor blood supply to lower limbs
(peripheral vascular disease)
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost Effective Approaches to Diabetes Care and Prevention’, p.10
Necrobiosis lipidoica
Sensory impairment
(peripheral neuropathy)
Gangrene
Ulceration
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

12. Diagnosing diabetes
If someone has the typical symptoms of diabetes the diagnosis is clear: - increased thirst - excess urine - weight loss - a clearly raised plasma glucose level
Ketones in the urine accompanied by high plasma glucose levels is also a clear indication of diabetes.
However, diagnosis is less straightforward for those with minor degrees of hyperglycaemia, and in the person without symptoms, two abnormal results on separate occasions are needed.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p. 49
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

13. Diagnostic criteria for diabetes and its risk states
Venous Plasma*Glucose concentration, Mmol l-1 (mg dl-1)
Diabetes mellitus
Fasting or
2-h post glucose load
≥7.0 (≥126)
≥11.1 (≥200)
Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)
≥7.8 -<11.1
(≥140 –<200)
Impaired Fasting Glycaemia (IFG)
Fasting
≥6.1 -<7
(≥110 - <126 )
Please note that these values refer to venous plasma glucose. Values for whole venous blood and for capillary blood are slightly different.
Cut off points are based on the risk of subsequently developing the specific complications of diabetes: retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p. 49
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

14. Risk factors for type 2 diabetes
Physical inactivity
Overweight and obesity
High-fat and low-fiber diet
Age
Urbanisation
Family history
Low birth weight
While some risk factors are fixed (such as age, gender and genetic background), many others are modifiable. The more risk factors a person has, the greater their likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes. Given that risk factors often occur together, all should be treated to gain the most benefit in terms of reducing type 2 diabetes.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.12; and ‘Time to Act’, p.53
Ethnicity
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

15. The metabolic syndrome
The close association of type 2 diabetes with cardiovascular disease has led to the hypothesis that they both share a common antecedent. This concept has been labeled ‘The Metabolic Syndrome’ by the World Health Organization and others.
The metabolic syndrome reflects the clustering of central obesity with several other major cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Insulin resistance
Hypertension
Impaired glucose regulation or diabetes
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Central obesity
Dyslipidaemia
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

16. Metabolic syndrome: The link between type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease?
A disturbing feature of diabetes has been the clustering of diabetes with other well-known cardiovascular risk factors, in particular central (abdominal) obesity.
The occurrence of central obesity, hypertension and disturbed blood lipids is dramatically increased in people with diabetes.
People with IGT and IFG also have a substantial increase in cardiovascular risk factors and, like people with diabetes, higher cardiovascular risk.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

17. Metabolic syndrome: Overall risk factors
There is now broad agreement on the overall risk factors which must be taken into account when defining the metabolic syndrome. These have been called ‘the deadly quartet’.
Impaired glucose regulation
Dyslipidaemia
Hypertension
Two of the most broadly used definitions are by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Cholesterol Education Program – Third Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP ATP III).
Obesity
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

18. Metabolic syndrome: Key underlying defects
It is suggested that insulin resistance and central obesity are the key underlying defects in the aetiology of type 2 diabetes.
A universal definition of metabolic syndrome is urgently needed to identify individuals at high risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Dyslipidaemia
Impaired glucose regulation
Hypertension
Insulin resistance
Obesity
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

19. Metabolic syndrome: The NCEP ATP III definition*
In order to make a diagnosis of the metabolic syndrome a patient must present with three or more of the following five risk factors:
Risk Factor
Defining Level
Abdominal obesity Men Women
Waist circumference >102 cm (>40 in) >88 cm (>35 in)
Triglycerides
≥150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L)
HDL cholesterol Men Women
<40 mg/dL (1.04 mmol/L) <50 mg/dL (1.29 mmol/L)
Blood pressure
≥130/ ≥85 mmHg
Fasting glucose
≥100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L)
From the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
*2001, updated 2005
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

20. Metabolic syndrome: IDF consensus definition (2005)
Central Obesity
Waist circumference - ethnicity specific*
- for Europids: Male ≥ 94 cm
Female ≥ 80 cm
plus any two of the following:
Raised Triglycerides
≥150mg/dL (1.7mmol/L)
or specific treatment for this lipid abnormality
Low HDL Cholesterol
<40mg/dL (1.03 mmol/L) in males
<50mg/dL (1.29 mmol/L) in females
Raised blood pressure
Systolic : ≥130 mmHg or
Diastolic: ≥85 mmHg or
Treatment of previously diagnosed hypertension
Impaired fasting glycaemia
Fasting plasma glucose ≥100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L)
or previously diagnosed type 2 diabetes If above 5.6 mmol/L or 100 mg/dL, OGTT is strongly recommended but is not necessary to define presence of the syndrome.
In 2004 the IDF held an expert workshop to examine how the currently available definitions for metabolic syndrome can be improved and developed with the aim of reaching a consensus for the introduction of a new and unifying definition.
Objective: To establish a unified working diagnostic tool for the metabolic syndrome that is convenient to use in clinical practice and that can be used world-wide so that data from different countries can be compared.
Participants: The IDF convened a workshop held May 2004 in London, UK. The 21 participants included experts in the fields of diabetes, public health, epidemiology, lipidology, genetics, metabolism, nutrition and cardiology. There were participants from each of the five continents as well as from the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the National Cholesterol Education Program – Third Adult Treatment Panel (ATP III).
Consensus Process: The consensus statement emerged following detailed discussions at the IDF workshop. After the workshop, a writing group produced a consensus statement which was reviewed and approved by all participants.
* For country/ethnic specific waist circumference values, see IDF 2004 Metabolic Syndrome World-wide definition, presented at 1st International Congress on Prediabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome, Berlin, April 2005.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

21. Metabolic syndrome: Prevalence in the US as defined by NCEP ATP III
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe
Ford. JAMA 2002

22. Metabolic syndrome: Prevalence in adults as defined by IDF criteria
Men
Women
Lima, Peru
21.6%
30%
Mexico City
55.6%
64%
Spain
27.3%
31.7%
Greece
24.5%
Hong Kong
7.4% of Chinese men and women
USA
39%
Germany
57%
46%
Statistics on:
Lima, Peru, Mexico City and Spain are from Diabetes Care: 2006 Mar; 29(3):
Greece: Hellenic J Cardiol Nov – Dec; 46(6):380-6.
Hong Kong: Diabetes Res Clin Pract Jan4: (Epub ahead of print)
USA: Diabetes Care Nov; 28(11):2745-9
Germany: Diabetes Care 29.2 (Feb 2006): p461(1).
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

23. Risk factors for obesity
High fat, energy dense diet
Sedentary lifestyle/
physical inactivity
Family history
Ethnicity
Age
CONTENTS:
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
From the IDF Publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p. 18
Stopping smoking
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

24. The health consequences of obesity
Cancer
Gall- bladder
disease
Respiratory
disease
Hyper- tension
Obesity
Kidney
failure
Type 2
diabetes
Stroke
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity,’ p.53
Athero-
sclerosis
Heart
failure
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

25. Measuring obesity Body Mass Index
Obesity is most commonly assessed by a single measure, the Body Mass Index (BMI), which uses a mathematical formula based on a person’s height and weight.
BMI = weight (kg)/height (m²)
Individuals with a BMI
between 25 to 29.9 are considered overweight
of 30 and above are considered obese.
The risk of serious health consequences such as type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, albuminuria and a wide range of other conditions increases with BMI.
From the IDF Publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.9 and p.17–18
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

26. Measuring obesity up to here The limitations of the Body Mass Index
BMI DOES NOT
show the difference between excess fat and muscle.
identify whether the fat is laid down in particular sites. For example, abdominal fat has more serious health consequences than fat located elsewhere.
The relation between fatness and BMI differs with age, race and gender.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.9 and
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe .

27. Measuring obesity WHO classification of adult categories of BMI
BMI (kg/m2)
Risk of co-morbidities
Underweight
<18.5
Low (but risk of other clinical problems increased)
Normal range
Average
Overweight*
≥25
Pre-obese
Mildly increased
Obese
>30.0
Class I
Moderate
Class II
Severe
Class III
40.0
Very severe
Although these BMI categories are not exact ranges they are useful guidelines.
The term overweight refers to BMI ≥25, but is frequently adapted to refer to the BMI , differentiating the
pre-obese from the obese categories.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.17
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

28. Measuring obesity WHO classification of BMIs for adults of Asian origin
BMI (kg/m2)
Risk of co-morbidities
Waist circumference
< 90 cm (men)
< 80 cm (women)
≥ 90 cm (men)
≥ 80 cm (women)
Underweight
<18.5
Low (but risk of other clinical problems increased)
Average
Normal range
Increased
Overweight
≥23
At risk
Moderate
Obese I
Severe
Obese II
≥ 30.0
Very severe
From World Health Organization: Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation on obesity. World Health Organization. Geneva, 1998.
World Health Organization, 1998
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

29. The relationship between BMI and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes5
1.0
1.5
4.4
6.7
11.6
21.3
42.1
2.2
2.9
4.3
5.0
15.8
27.6
40.3
54.0
93.2
8.1 10
Women
Men 40 70
100
<22
<23
23-
23.9
Body mass index (kg/m2)
24.9
26.9
28.9
30.9
32.9
34.9
24-
25-
27-
29-
31-
33-
35+
Risk of type 2 diabetes
Adapted from: Klein S and Romijn J, in: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 10th ed, 2003
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.25
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

30. Waist circumference and the metabolic syndrome
The presence of abdominal obesity is more highly correlated with the metabolic risk factors than is an elevated BMI.
The new IDF consensus definition of the metabolic syndrome stipulates the following as a pre-requisite for a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome:
≥ 80 cm for European women
≥ 94 cm for European men
Waist circumference is calculated by comfortably measuring the waist halfway between the bottom of the rib cage and the top of the pelvis.
Some of the material on this slide is modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.18
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

31. Country/ethnic specific values for waist circumference
Country/Ethnic group
Waist circumference
Europids
Male
Female
≥ 94 cm
≥ 80 cm
South Asians
≥ 90 cm
Chinese
Japanese
Ethnic South and Central Americans
Use South Asian recommendations until more specific data are available
Sub-Saharan Africans
Use European data until more specific data are available
Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East (Arab) populations
From the IDF website:
Europids: In the USA, the NCEP ATP III values (88cm female; 102cm male) are likely to continue to be used for clinical purposes.
South Asians: based on a Chinese, Malay and Asian-Indian population.
In the USA, the NCEP ATP III values (102 cm male; 88 cm female) are likely to continue to be used for clinical purposes.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

32. Insulin resistance
Insulin resistance: A state in which a given level of insulin produces a less than expected biological effect.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

33. Insulin resistance
Insulin resistance is an underlying feature of both the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes.
It is associated with abnormalities in both glucose and lipid metabolism.
These abnormalities are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and are often present before the onset of type 2 diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

34. Insulin resistance: the link between obesity and type 2 diabetes?
Obesity and type 2 diabetes are causally linked.
The means by which excess body fat causes type 2 diabetes is not clearly defined, but it appears that excess fat increases insulin resistance, raising blood glucose levels and the likelihood of developing diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

35. Weight gain and insulin resistance
Weight gain leads to insulin resistance through several mechanisms:
Fat accumulation induces insulin resistance through changes in its hormonal and other secretions. Protective hormones decline as fat cells expand, particularly in the abdomen.
Physical inactivity, both a cause and consequence of weight gain, also contributes to insulin resistance.
Insulin resistance places a greater demand on the pancreatic capacity to produce insulin, which also declines with age, leading to the development of clinical diabetes.
Modified from the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas Executive Summary, p.22 \.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

36. Impaired glucose regulation
Impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) are not clinical entities in their own right but rather risk categories for future diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease.
The terms refer to different measurements of
abnormal glucose regulation: IFG in the fasting
state and IGT in the post prandial state.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

37. Impaired glucose regulation
IGT: Blood levels that are higher than normal in response to an oral glucose load but below the level of someone with diabetes.
IFG: raised fasting levels of glucose.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

38. Impaired glucose regulation
IGT and IFG are considered risk categories for developing type 2 diabetes.
Both IFG and IGT represent a risk of 25% to 50% of developing type 2 diabetes in the next 10 years but it is not inevitable.
IFG and IGT are particularly amenable to treatment through lifestyle interventions.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

39. Hypertension
Hypertension (high blood pressure): damages the smaller vessels in the circulatory system. Over time they become scarred, hardened, narrowed and less elastic. High blood pressure can also both predispose to and accelerate the development of atherosclerosis.
Systolic blood pressure:
≥ 130mm Hg of mercury or
Diastolic blood pressure:
≥ 85mm Hg of mercury
Component of the Metabolic Syndrome (according to the IDF consensus definition)
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

40. Dyslipidaemia
Dyslipidaemia: Abnormal levels of lipids (fats) in the blood.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

41. Dyslipidaemia and cardiovascular disease
Dyslipidaemia is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease - for patients with metabolic syndrome as well as those with type 2 diabetes
The dyslipidaemia observed in these high risk patients is complex, and is characterised by:
Normal or only slightly elevated LDL cholesterol
Hypertriglyceridemia (↑TG)
Low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (↓HDL)
Small, dense LDL particles
All these elements can be measured in the blood.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

42. Dyslipidaemia key terms: Triglyceride and cholesterol
Triglyceride: The major form of fat made in the liver.
Most of the fat we eat is composed of triglycerides. The
rest is cholesterol.
Raised levels of triglycerides (↑TG) are a
characteristic of diabetic dyslipidaemia.
Cholesterol: A fat of the body. It is absorbed from
animal fat we eat and is also produced by the liver.
Cholesterol circulates in the blood in the form of
particles called lipoproteins.
From the IDF publication ‘Diabetes and obesity’, p.55
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

43. Dyslipidaemia key terms: Lipoproteins
High density lipoprotein (HDL): protects against cardiovascular disease. Therefore low levels of HDL-C (↓HDL-C) increase cardiovascular disease.
Low density lipoprotein (LDL): LDL-C cholesterol promotes cardiovascular disease.
From the RISC Educational Tool
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

44. Dyslipidaemia key terms LDL particles
Small LDL particles are different from the larger LDL particles and may be more atherogenic. Therefore the cholesterol blood level in a patient with diabetes may be misleading.
The combination of normal or only slightly elevated levels of LDL cholesterol, low HDL (↓HDL) and the presence of small dense LDL particles are characteristic of diabetic dyslipidaemia.
From the RISC Educational Tool.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

45. Diabetic dyslipidaemia
Diabetic dyslipidaemia and insulin resistance:
↓HDL and ↑TG and insulin resistance are frequently correlated (with or without type 2 diabetes).
Diabetic dyslipidaemia and coronary artery disease: ↓HDL, ↑TG and ↑LDL indicate a significant increase in the risk of coronary artery disease.
From The RISC Educational Tool
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

46. Atherogenic dyslipidemic profile in the metabolic syndrome
Triglycerides 
Fasting VLDL 
Non-HDL cholesterol 
Apolipoprotein B 
HDL cholesterol 
LDL cholesterol
()
LDL small and dense particles 
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

47. Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD): Cardiovascular diseases are defined as diseases and injuries of the circulatory system: the heart, the blood vessels of the heart, and the system of blood vessels throughout the body, and to (and in) the brain.
Stroke: Stroke is the result of a blood flow problem within, or leading to, the brain and is considered a form of cardiovascular disease.
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

48. Cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes
The processes by which diabetes can lead to cardiovascular damage do not develop independently. Each may accelerate or worsen the others.
Atherosclerosis and hypertension are the two main processes which lead to cardiovascular disease.
Microangiopathy and autonomic neuropathy are other damaging effects which are specific to diabetes.
In many people with diabetes these different factors co-exist, resulting in progressive damage to the heart and blood vessels.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.37 and p.43.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

49. Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis: leads to the formation of plaques of atheroma which narrow the diameter of the large and medium sized arteries. This narrowing impairs blood flow. Plaques are also prone to rupture, or to ulcerate and then act as a site for blood clot formation. The resulting blood clots, which can block the affected vessel completely, are usually responsible for the more severe clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease such as heart attack and stroke.
Today the most widespread form of cardiovascular disease around the world is that which starts with damage to the blood vessels. As well as atherosclerosis, hypertension damages the smaller vessels in the circulatory system. Over time they become scarred, hardened, narrowed and less elastic. Hypertension can also both predispose and accelerate the development of atherosclerosis. (A ‘definition’ slide for hypertension’ appears in the section about the metabolic syndrome.)
From the IDF publication: ‘Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes’, p.19
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

50. Hypertension, atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes
Today the most widespread forms of cardiovascular disease are those which start with damage to the blood vessels – hypertension and atherosclerosis.
Hypertension
is at least twice as common in people with diabetes as in the general population.
is also more frequent in people with impaired glucose tolerance.
Atherosclerosis
Not only are people with diabetes at increased risk of developing atherosclerosis, but the process also tends to be accelerated, more severe and more widespread.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.38
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

51. The cardiovascular disease triad
Brain and cerebral circulation -
cerebrovascular disease
Heart and coronary circulation - coronary heart disease
Lower limbs - peripheral vascular disease
From the IDF publication: ‘Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes’, p.19
The major clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease can be divided into three groups.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

52. The clinical consequences of diabetes and cardiovascular disease
People with type 2 diabetes have the same risk of heart attack as people without diabetes who have already had a heart attack.
Women with diabetes are subject to sudden death 300% more often and men with diabetes 50% more often than their counterparts without diabetes of the same age.
Strokes occur twice as often in people with diabetes and hypertension as in those with hypertension alone.
A person with diabetes has a two to three-fold greater risk of heart failure compared to a person without diabetes.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Cardiovascular disease and Diabetes’, p
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

53. Heart attacks in people with and without diabetes over a period of seven years50 40 35 30
Incidence (%) 25 20 15 10 5
From the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas, Executive Summary, p.24
People without diabetes
People with diabetes
No prior heart attack
Prior heart attack
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

54. Cardiovascular risk factors
Advancing age
Diabetes and other high blood glucose conditions
Dyslipidaemia
Genetic background
High alcohol consumption
Hypertension
Insulin resistance
Left ventricular hypertrophy
Male gender
Menopause
Obesity
Sedentary lifestyle
Smoking
Bold text: modifiable risk factor
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.45
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

55. What is a risk factor? A risk factor can be genetic or acquired.
It may be identified as a single measurement (eg weight), disease (eg hypertension) or lifestyle characteristic (eg smoking).
The condition must be associated with that disease in a manner which is beyond chance alone. A causal link is therefore implied.
A risk factor will not necessarily always lead to the development of the disease.
The ultimate purpose of identifying a risk factor is to modify it in order to prevent the disease.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes Atlas Executive Summary’, p.45
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

56. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in people with diabetes, compared to people without diabetes
Risk Factor
Prevalence
Hypertension
Prevalence is at least double in people with type 2 diabetes
High Blood Cholesterol
Prevalence is similar in people with diabetes
High Triglycerides with Low HDL
Prevalence is higher in people with diabetes
Left ventricular Hypertrophy
Most commonly seen in people with long-standing high blood pressure, but is also seen in the absence of elevated blood pressure in people with diabetes
Obesity
Prevalence is stronger in people with diabetes. Weight distribution is also usually different, with more central obesity which is linked with a tendency to develop coronary heart disease.
Smoking
People with diabetes smoke less (presumably due to medical advice).
From the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas, Executive Summary.

57. Targets for common cardiovascular risk factors in people with diabetes
Dyslipidaemia
Decrease LDL cholesterol levels (<100 mg/dl or 2.5 mmol/l*)
Raise HDL cholesterol levels (>46 mg/dl or 1.2 mmol/l*)
Lower triglycerides (<150 mg/dl or 1.7 mmol/l*)
Hypertension
Lower blood pressure (<135/85 mm Hg)
Hyperglycaemia
Reduce hyperglycaemia (HbAlc <7%)
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.57
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

58. Diabetes - a growing threat
There are currently more than 230 million people with diabetes worldwide.  If nothing is done to slow the epidemic, the number will exceed 350 million by 2025.
In 2003, the five countries with the largest numbers of persons with diabetes were
India (35.5 million)
China (23.8 million)
the United States (16 million) 
Russia (9.7 million)
Japan (6.7 million). 
By 2025, the number of people with diabetes is expected to more than double in Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, and South-East Asia.
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

59. Diabetes – a growing threat
By 2025 the number of people with diabetes is expected to rise by
20% in Europe
50% in North America
75% in the Western Pacific
85% in South and Central America.
For developing countries, there will be a projected increase of a 170% of cases;
For developed countries, there will be a projected rise of 42%.
Diabetes is the fourth main cause of death in most developed countries.
From the IDF position statement:
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

60. The prevalence estimates of diabetes worldwide – 2003
< 2%
2% - 5%
5% - 8%
8% - 11%
11% - 14%
14% - 17%
17% - 20%
>20
Diabetes Atlas second edition, IDF 2003
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

61. The prevalence estimates of diabetes worldwide – 2025
< 2%
2% - 5%
5% - 8%
8% - 11%
11% - 14%
14% - 17%
17% - 20%
>20
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, p.16
Diabetes Atlas second edition, IDF 2003
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

62. Prevalence of diabetes (20–79 age group) by region10
2003
2025
7.5
Prevalence (%) 5
2.5
Source: Diabetes Atlas second edition, ©International Diabetes Federation, 2003
From the IDF publication ‘Diabetes and obesity’, p.13
AFR
EMME
EUR NA
SACA
SEA WP
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

63. A growing threat Diabetes in the elderly and the young
Diabetes increased by one-third during the 1990s, due to the prevalence of obesity and an ageing population.
Diabetes is particularly common in ageing populations, and the incidence is increasing in proportion to the number of people living longer.
The incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents has also risen dramatically in recent years.
Young people with diabetes will develop diabetes-related micro-and macrovascular complications at a relatively young age.
The prevalence of diabetes is rising to epidemic proportions at an alarming rate worldwide.
From the position statement: and the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Obesity’, p.26 – 27.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

64. A growing threat The obesity epidemic
Overweight and obesity can affect as many as 30% –35% of people under the age of 30 in some developed countries.
In Europe, the UK has demonstrated the most rapid increase in obesity which could see more than 40% of the population obese by 2025.
Worldwide the prevalence of obesity is rising to epidemic proportions at an alarming rate, with over half the world’s population already affected.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, pages 9, 20, 29 and 47.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

65. A growing threat Diabetes and obesity
International Obesity Task Force figures suggest that up to 1.7 billion people are already at a heightened risk of weight related non-communicable disease such as type 2 diabetes.
These rising levels are likely to drive the prevalence of diabetes even higher than present forecasts, which do not take into account changes in the obesity epidemic.
It is estimated that at least half of all diabetes cases would be eliminated if weight gain in adults could be prevented.
Modified from the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, pages 9, 20, 29 and 47.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

66. Overweight and obesity among school age children (5–17 Years)35 30 25 20 15 10 5
Americas
Europe
Near/Middle
East
Asia and
Pacific
Sub- Saharan
Africa
Worldwide
Overweight
Obese
Prevalence (%)
Source: Diabetes Atlas second edition; © International Obesity Task Force, 2003
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, p.27
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

67. The prevalence of male and female obesity levels in selected European countries
Yugoslavia
Greece
Romania
Czech Rep.
England
Finland
Germany
Scotland
Slovakia
Portugal
Spain
Denmark
Belgium
Sweden
France
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Hungary
Switzerland
Source: IOTF 2003
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, p.20 30 20 10 10 20 30 40
% BMI ≥ 30
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

68. A growing threat The complications of diabetes
Diabetes is the leading cause of blindness and visual impairment in adults in developed countries.
Diabetes is the most common cause of amputation which is not the result of an accident.
People with diabetes are 15 to 40 times more likely to require a lower-limb amputation compared to the general population.
Many people with diabetes develop severe kidney disease, which may be fatal if left untreated.
From the Position Statement: and the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes care and prevention’, p.10
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

69. A growing threat Diabetes and cardiovascular disease
70%–80% of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease.
For each risk factor present, the risk of cardiovascular death is about three times greater in people with diabetes as compared to people without the condition.
Cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death in industrialized countries. It is also set to overtake infectious diseases as the most common cause of death in many parts of the less developed world.
Modified from the Position Statement: and the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and cardiovascular disease’, p.40-42
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

70. Changes in coronary heart disease mortality rates in the USA
-10
-20
-30
-40 10 20 30
Coronary heart disease mortality (%)
People without diabetes
People with diabetes
Men
Women
Adapted from: Gu K, et al (1999)
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.57
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

71. The cost of diabetes
The annual direct healthcare costs of diabetes worldwide, for people in the 20 – 79 age bracket, is estimated to be at least 153 billion international dollars.
It is estimated that diabetes accounts for between 5% and 10% of total healthcare spending in most countries and up to 25% in some.
If predictions of diabetes prevalence are fulfilled, total direct healthcare expenditure on diabetes worldwide will be between 213 billion and 396 billion international dollars in 2025.
CONTENTS:
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

72. The cost of diabetes Diabetes and cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease is the most important single contributor to diabetes costs.
In the industrialised world, CVD accounts for 57% of total medical care costs for people with diabetes.
The trend of escalating diabetes prevalence, with its impact on CVD, will no doubt lead to an immense financial burden in many countries, unless action is taken to prevent diabetes and its complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

73. The cost of diabetes Estimates of the cost of diabetes care by region
140,000
R=2
R=3
120,000
100,000
(in million international dollars)
80,000
60,000
40,000
The international dollar is a common currency unit that takes into account differences in the relative purchasing power of various currencies. Figures expressed in international dollars are calculated using purchasing power parities (PPP), which are rates of currency conversion constructed to account for differences in price levels between countries.
From the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas, Executive Summary, p.28
20,000
AFR
EMME
EUR NA
SACA
SEA WP
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

74. The cost of diabetes The CODE-2 Study
A collaborative study of the direct costs of diabetes in eight European countries, the CODE-2 study demonstrated that type 2 diabetes is a serious and costly condition.
The study estimated that:
The total direct medical costs for the 10 million people with type 2 diabetes in these countries were 29 billion Euros in 1998.
Type 2 diabetes accounted for between 3% and 6% of total healthcare expenditure in the different countries.
It also showed that diabetes-related complications are the main reason for the high costs.
From the IDF website E-Atlas
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

75. Total for these 8 countries = 29 billion Euros
Total annual direct medical costs for patients with type 2 diabetes (CODE ) UK
2.6 billion Euros
Sweden
0.7 billion Euros
Belgium
1.1 billion Euros
Netherlands
0.4 billion Euros
France
4.0 billion Euros
Germany
12.4 billion Euros
Spain
2.0 billion Euros
Italy
5.8 billion Euros
From the presentation by Professor Rhys Williams at the IDF workshop on type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome, Brussels, 2004.
Total for these 8 countries = 29 billion Euros
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe 37

76. Direct healthcare costs relevant to diabetes – the example of Code-2
General healthcare cost per patient (US$)
Additional cost due to presence of diabetes (US$)
3,500
3,000
2,500
US$
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
From the IDF publication: Diabetes Atlas, Second Edition. UK
Italy
Spain
France
Belgium
Germany
Sweden
Netherlands
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

77. The cost of diabetes Implications for health systems
Direct health care costs of diabetes are high and rising
Direct health care costs of the metabolic syndrome dominate health care budgets
Preventing or delaying the onset of type 2 diabetes results in considerable cost reduction
Improving metabolic control can also reduce health care resource use
From the presentation by Professor Rhys Williams at the IDF workshop on type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome, Brussels, 2004.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

78. Proportion of hospital bed days used for the treatment of diabetic complications
Source: International Diabetes Federation (1999)
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease’, p.38
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

79. Managing Diabetes and Diabetic Complications
The human and economic costs of diabetes could be significantly reduced by investing in prevention, particularly early detection, in order to avoid the onset of diabetic complications.
At least 50% of all people with diabetes are unaware of their condition. 
In some countries this figure may rise to 80%.
Modified from the IDF Position Statement:
CONTENTS
Section One: Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two: The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

80. Managing diabetes Blood glucose and lipids
There is conclusive evidence that good control of blood glucose levels can substantially reduce the risk of developing complications and slow the progression in all types of diabetes. 
The management of high blood pressure and raised blood lipids (fats) is equally important. 
In all societies, better control of these parameters would contribute to a substantial improvement in quality of life.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

81. Recent Trials Relevant to the Primary Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes
Study
Year
Interventions
Outcome
DaQing (China)
1997
Diet, physical activity or both (control group: general)
Reduction in diabetes incidence 31% in diet group, 46% in physical activity and 42% in diet and physical activity compared to control group
Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study
2001
Diet and physical activity (control group: general advice)
Reduction by 58% of the risk of diabetes compared to control group
Diabetes Prevention Program (USA)
2002
Diet, physical activity, metformin and placebo
58% reduction in incidence of diabetes with lifestyle intervention, 31% with metformin
STOP-NIDDM
Acarbose or placebo
32% patients randomised to acarbose and 42% randomised to placebo developed diabetes
Diabetes and Obesity, Time to Act, p.33, IDF 2004
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

82. Managing obesity
Obesity is the main modifiable risk factor for type 2 diabetes.
Small amounts of weight loss (5%–10%) can prevent or delay the development of type 2 diabetes in individuals with a high risk of the disease.
Even a 5% weight reduction in those who are overweight or obese improves the risk of complications such as heart disease.
From the IDF publication: ‘Diabetes and obesity’, pages 27, 28, 29 and 37
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

83. Managing obesity
Lifestyle interventions, including diet and moderate physical activity (for example, walking 25 minutes per day, 6 times per week) can reduce the risk of diabetes by as much as 40–60%.
Weight loss drugs have a role in individuals in whom lifestyle changes are either insufficient to produce the required weight control or are impossible to achieve because of physical incapacity.
Weight management is the best strategy to prevent the development of type 2 diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

84. Screening for undiagnosed diabetes
Half or more of type 2 diabetes is undiagnosed.
Opportunistic screening during a healthcare visit for other reasons can identify undiagnosed diabetes, particularly in individuals at high risk.
Up to half of those afflicted already have signs of complications at diagnosis.
Strong scientific evidence relating good metabolic control to the prevention or delay of these complications is now available.
Better treatment for people already diagnosed with diabetes may be a better investment than population screening, and it is clearly more cost effective to screen groups that have already been identified as being at higher risk of diabetes.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’ p.15
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

85. Microvascular complications
Eye Problems
Foot Problems
Kidney Problems
CONTENTS:
Section One:
Background to type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease
Type 2 diabetes
The metabolic syndrome – definition and components
Cardiovascular disease
Section Two:
The argument for intensive management and prevention
Diabetes – A Growing Threat
The cost of diabetes
Managing diabetes and diabetic complications
Prevention and management of micro and macrovascular complications.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

86. Eye problems
The eye complications associated with diabetes (either specific to diabetes or more common in people with diabetes) are retinopathy, macular oedema, glaucoma and cataract.
All of these complications are common, and, if left untreated, lead to deterioration of vision and ultimately, blindness.
They are all treatable if detected early and most are potentially preventable.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p. 23
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

87. Screening for eye problems
Screening for diabetic retinopathy is cost-effective where subsequent treatment, such as laser treatment, is available and affordable.
Where there is no access to laser treatment, good metabolic control aimed at delaying the progress of diabetic eye disease is likely to be cost-effective.
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

88. Managing eye problems
Diabetic eye disease can be prevented or delayed by careful management of the underlying diabetes.
If detected early, well before symptoms begin, its progress can be further delayed by photocoagulation.
Laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy and macular oedema is highly effective.
Laser screening is also particularly cost effective for younger patients, in whom the number of years of sight saved will be large.
Cataract can be dealt with cheaply and effectively by surgical removal.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p. 23
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

89. Foot problems
The combination of nerve damage and insufficient blood supply in the legs and feet of people with diabetes often leads to painful ulcers, infection and gangrene. This can ultimately result in amputation and even death.
From the IDF publication, ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p. 25
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

90. Foot problems
Foot ulceration affects some 15% of all people with diabetes some time during their lives.
In developed countries, amputation of lower extremities is at least 10 times more common in persons with diabetes than in persons without diabetes.
In developed countries, hospitalisation for people with diabetes-related foot ulcers is approximately 60% longer than for people without foot ulcers.
The costs of diabetic foot problems are so high that a host of interventions are likely to be cost effective depending on the problem and the circumstances in which these interventions are carried out.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.25
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

91. Managing foot problems
A number of interventions have been found to be effective in preventing the consequences of diabetic foot problems:
Education
Pressure-relieving interventions
Multidisciplinary clinics
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’,p.25
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

92. The cost effectiveness of managing foot problems
Although sources of cost savings vary country by country, the strategies of education, pressure-relieving interventions and multidisciplinary clinics have been judged to be cost-effective.
(Unfortunately data on cost-effectiveness comes exclusively from developed countries.)
One study identifies patient education as the most cost-effective intervention. Even if risk reduction is only half of the 50%–86% reported in the literature, the economic benefits of implementing such an approach will be substantial.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.25
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

93. Renal problems
The renal problems associated with diabetes are among the most costly in terms of their direct healthcare costs.
People who develop these complications can, if left untreated, proceed to renal failure, which in turn leads to premature death if dialysis or kidney transplantation are not available.
When they are available, long-term dialysis or the more desirable option of transplantation brings high healthcare costs to the individual and family, or to the healthcare sector or, more typically, to both.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.27
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

94. Screening for renal problems
Renal failure in diabetes can be detected very early by screening for ‘microalbuminuria’ (very small traces of protein in the urine).
A number of studies suggest that when the facilities for treatment are available, screening for microalbuminuria is cost-effective.
Treatment with ACE inhibitors (even in the absence of hypertension) is deemed, at least in the USA, to be cost-saving. When these are not available much can be done with other, less costly and more readily available anti-hypertensives (when hypertension is present). Improved blood glucose is also an important part of the response.
However, effective treatment must be available in order to follow on from the detection of this early sign of renal failure.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes,’ p.27
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

95. Managing renal problems
Keeping blood pressure at near-normal level in people with diabetes who also have hypertension is known to be effective in preventing or delaying renal failure.
Maintaining a near-normal level of blood glucose also plays an important part.
In addition, even in the absence of hypertension, the anti-hypertensive ACE-inhibitor drugs have been shown to provide protection for the kidney in people who have microalbuminuria.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.27
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

96. The prevention of microvascular complications
Maintaining near-normal levels of blood glucose and blood pressure significantly decreases the risk of microvascular complications in people with diabetes.
The DCCT, UKPDS and Kumamoto Studies have demonstrated this in regard to hyperglycaemia.
The UKPDS Study and HOT Trial have shown the importance of the effective control of blood pressure.
The control of dyslipidaemia is also of vital importance, as is, if necessary, weight reduction.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.19
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

97. The prevention of macrovascular complications
The same basic improvements in diet and physical activity that prevent type 2 diabetes are likely to prevent CVD complications.
Also, a wide range of drugs has now been proven to be effective in reducing the risk of CVD in people with diabetes, and in treating diabetes-associated CVD once it is present.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.21
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

98. Each of these drugs can decrease CVD risk by 20% - 30% or more:
Drug therapy
Each of these drugs can decrease CVD risk by 20% - 30% or more:
Aspirin One of the world’s least expensive drugs, aspirin has been proven to be risk-beneficial in people with diabetes. However, caution is needed if the risk of strokes resulting from bleeding is high.
Beta Blockers, Diuretics and ACE Inhibitors (angiotensin – converting enzyme inhibitors): lower blood pressure
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.22
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

99. Drug therapy
Each of these drugs can decrease CVD risk by 20% - 30% or more:
ACE Inhibitors Also the drug of choice for preventing renal disease – the second most expensive complication of diabetes.
Lipid Lowering Agents such as statins Statins appear to be beneficial in almost all people with diabetes and seem to be safe over the usual range of dosages used.
From the IDF publication: ‘Cost effective approaches to diabetes’, p.22
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe

100. Reduction of Complication
Highest Percentage Reduction of the Risk of Diabetic Complications in People with Type 2 Diabetes shown in Recent Studies
Strategy
Complication
Reduction of Complication
Lipid control
Coronary heart disease mortality
Major coronary heart disease event
Any atherosclerotic event
Cerebrovascular disease event
36%¹
55%¹
37%¹
62%¹
Blood Pressure Control
Cardiovascular disease
Heart failure
Stroke
Diabetes-related deaths
51%²
56%³
44%³
32%³
Blood Glucose Control
Heart Attack
37%³
The 4S Study: Haffner, SM, Arch Intern Med 1999
Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) Randomised Trial:
Hansson L, Lancet, 1998
UKPDS: UKPDS 38 BMJ 1998
From the IDF Publication: ‘Diabetes and cardiovascular disease’, p.56
1 The 4S Study
2 Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) Randomised Trial
3 UKPDS
Type 2 diabetes,
the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in Europe