1. Hypothalamus

2. Older part of the brain (Primitive) –Maintenance of homeostasis Reception of external and internal signals Incorporation of signals to generate appropriate responses –Endocrine –Autonomic –Behavioral Reception of feedback –Hormones

3. Anatomy of hypothalamus Landmarks –Anterior (front) Optic chiasm (crossing of optic nerve fibers) –Posterior (dorsal/back) Mamillary body –Superior (cranial) Third ventricle –Inferior Pituitary stalk/infundiblum

5. Neural organization of hypothalamus –Clusters of neurons Nucleus/nuclei –Different section of hypothalamus contains different nuclei

6. Median eminence The center of the tuber cinereum (floor of the third ventricle) –Blood vessels –Nerve endings Functional link between hypothalamus and pituitary gland –Site where the pituitary portal vessels arise Extensive network of arterialized venus capillaries Microcirculation between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

7. Three zones –Ependymal layer Cells with microvilli Tanycytes –Forms barrier between CSF and blood –Prevention of diffusion of hypothalamic factors –Internal zone Axons of hypothalamic neurons (supraoptic and paraventricular) –Extended to the posterior pituitary

8. Three zones –External zone Peptinergic neurons –Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) –Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH/CRF) –Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH/LHRH) Neurons that release monoamines –Serotonin and dopamine Portal vessels

9. Release of hypothalamic peptides –Depolarization of neural cells –Supporting elements Non-neural cells –Coordinated regulation by interaction of neurons Hypothalamic CNS

10. Types of neurosecretory system Magnocellular neurons –Neural cells located within hypothalamus Paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei Supraoptic nuclei –Axon extend through median eminence and enter the posterior pituitary gland –Hormones produced by the neural cells in hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary gland to be released Oxytocin Vasopressin

12. Parvicellular hypophyseotropic neurons –Nuerons within Paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei and arcuate nuclei –Axons terminate in median eminence Portal plexus –Factors released in portal circulation Triggers secretion of anterior pituitary hormones

14. Hypothalamic projection neurons –Communication between neurons Hypothalamic neurons –Paraventricular hypothalamus –Lateral hypothalamic area –Arcuate nuclei Target neurons –Preganglionic neurons in spinal cord Use of hormones as neural signals

16. Regulation of hypothalamic hormone secretion Role of neurons within the brain –Intrinsic and extrinsic cues Sensory neurons Neurotransmitters –Excitatory –Inhibitory –Neurotransmitters Monoamines –Dopamine, Nor, Epi, Serotonin, Histamine, and acetulcholine Amino acids –Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, and glutamate

17. Regulation of hypothalamic hormone secretion Role of neurons within the brain –Neurotransmitters Excitation or inhibition depend on the type of receptor present on the peptinergic neurons

18. Feedback system –Production of hormones by target tissue Release of TSH from hypothalamus results in release of TRH from pituitary gland and subsequently production of T3 and T4 by thyroid gland –Hypothalamus and pituitary gland Target tissue to steroid and thyroid hormones

19. Types of feedback –Long-loop From target organ to hypothalamus, pituitary, or higher brain

20. –Short-loop Between hypothalamus and pituitary Retrograde flow of pituitary hormones to hypothalamus –Autofeedback (autoinhibition) Within the hypothalamus

21. Result of feedback –Inhibition of pituitary hormone release Prevent action of hypothalamic hormones –Inhibitor production Alteration of cell population Alteration of cellular sensitivity to hypothalamic hormones –GnRH receptor concentrations increase in response to estradiol –TRH receptor concentrations decrease in response to thyroxin

22. Regulation of secretory rhythm/pattern Biological clock –Circadian rhythm Diurnal activity Light-dark cycle (Day/night) –Changes in external environment –Regulated by supraoptic nuclei Pituitary hormones –Episotic/pulsatile secretion Critical for normal function

23. Action of hypothalamic hormones Anterior pituitary gland –Heterogeneous population of cells Several secretory cells Hypothalamic hormones –Elicit/inhibit action potential Ca-dependent –Induce/inhibit cAMP production Activity of adenylcyclase