1. What do you understand by this saying?
“Making mountains out of molehills.”
MAGNIFICATION – always focusing on small, negative events, and ignoring large positive events (‘making mountains out of molehills’).

2. The Cognitive Approach to Depression
4.1.4 Psychopathology:
The cognitive approach to explaining depression, including Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’s ABC model;

3. What do you think about these statements?
“It is essential to be loved or approved of by everyone in the community”
“You must be perfectly competent, capable and achieving in order to consider yourself worthwhile”

4. How people assess the same situation varies

5. Key Assumptions of The Cognitive Approach
Individuals who suffer from mental disorders have distorted and irrational thinking – which may cause maladaptive behaviour.
It is the way you think about the problem rather than the problem itself which causes the mental disorder.
Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions. If people think in more positive ways, they can be helped to feel better
Life events happen, and people in general will have an adaptive response to them.

6. Cognitive Approach
There are a number of cognitive explanations of depression which believe that the disorder is the result of disturbance in ‘thinking’.
They focus on an individual’s negative thoughts, irrational beliefs and misinterpretation of events as being the cause of depression.

7. Aaron Beck
Beck suggested that there is a cognitive explanation as to why some people are more vulnerable to depression than others.
He suggested three parts to this cognitive vulnerability
faulty information processing
negative self-schemas
the negative triad

8. 1. Faulty Information processing
Beck believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in logic
Beck proposed that depressed people tend to selectively attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positive aspects
There is a tendency to blow small problems out of proportion with thinking in terms of black and white and ignoring the middle ground; you are a success or a failure, rather than not good at some things but OK at others.

9. 2. Negative self-schemas
A schema is a building block of knowledge, a ‘package’ of ideas and information that has developed with experience
A self-schema is a package of ideas that we have about ourselves
People who have become depressed have developed negative self-schemas and therefore they interpret all the information about themselves in a negative way

10. Weissman and Beck (1978)
AIM: to investigate the thought processes of depressed people to establish if they make use of negative schemas
METHOD: thought processes were measured using the dysfunctional attitude scale (DAS). Participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire by ticking whether they agreed or disagreed with a set of statements. For example, ‘people will probably think less of me if I make a mistake’.
RESULT: they found that depressed participants made more negative assessments than non-depressed people. When given some therapy to challenge and change their negative schemas there was an improvement in their self-ratings
CONCLUSION: Depression involves the use of negative schemas

11. 3. The negative triad
Beck built on the idea of maladaptive responses, and suggested that people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts
They have a tendency to view themselves, the world and the future in pessimistic ways – the triad of impairments
Negative view of the self (I am incompetent and undeserving)
Negative view of the world (it is a hostile place)
Negative view of the future (problems will not disappear, there will always be emotional pain)

12. Beck’s Model of Depression (1979) ‘The Cognitive Triad’
Negative Triad (3 negative schemata)
negative view of the self
negative view of the world
negative view of the future
Negative view of the self (I am incompetent and undeserving
Negative view of the world
it is a hostile place
Depression
Negative view of the future problems will not disappear, there will always be emotional pain
Negative Automatic Thoughts
Beck built on the idea of maladaptive responses, and suggested that people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts
Negative view of the self (I am incompetent and undeserving)
Negative view of the world (it is a hostile place)
Negative view of the future (problems will not disappear, there will always be emotional pain)
Attributions are internal or external ( the cause is seen as internal (it’s my fault’, or due to external circumstances beyond their control
Attributions can be specific or global, i.e. The cause may be specific to a particular event or apply to all events
Attributions can be stable or unstable (the individual consistently makes the same types of attribution, or they can vary over time and situation)
In depression attributions for negative events are internal, global and stable.
Attributions for positive events are external, specific and unstable. 12

13. Beck’s Theory
Negative cognitive triad
Cognitive errors
Schemas

14. Healthy interpretation of negative events
Bad things happen - it’s part of life.
Chris gets dumped by his girlfriend.
Non-depressive interpretation:
Plenty more fish in the sea.
We weren’t that well suited anyway.
No more nagging – can go out with my mates whenever I like.
Basically, I’m sad but I’ll get over it.
This slide gives a set of mentally healthy reactions to a negative event. Other examples can be used. Eg. I failed my first driving test: I can take another one etc.

15. Depressed person’s interpretation
We’ll do this using Beck’s NEGATIVE TRIAD:
THE SELF: for example
Not surprised I’ve been dumped - I was never good enough for her anyway.
THE FUTURE: for example
I’ll never find anyone to share my life with; I’m always going to be lonely.
THE WORLD: for example
People don’t like me: they never give me a chance to show what a nice person I am and how good a partner I could be.
Now we see the same event interpreted in the way Beck suggests causes depression.

16. D I Y Do a similar negative triad for the following:
Sam got an average mark in a maths test.
Louis lost the house he wanted to buy because someone put in a better offer – more than he could afford.
Rick’s computer keeps crashing whilst he’s trying to write an essay.
Students do these themselves using the negative triad.

17. Albert Ellis
Ellis proposed that good mental health is the result of rational thinking
Ellis argued that there are common irrational beliefs that underlie much depression (poor mental health), and sufferers have based their lives on these beliefs
For example: “I must be successful, competent and achieving in everything I do if I am to consider myself worthwhile”

18. Ellis ABC model
Ellis suggested that …
(A) an action is affected by
(B) an individual’s beliefs which results in
(C) a consequence
If beliefs are subject to cognitive biases (in the same way as Beck’s) then they can cause irrational thinking which may produce undesirable behaviours.
Example:
Emma overhears a remark made in class ‘she really gets on my nerves’. It could have referred to anyone but Emma believes that she is unworthy and people don’t want to be friends with her. She withdraws from the friendship group and becomes more and more isolated and depressed.

19. Albert Ellis Activating event triggers …
Explains depressive/irrational thinking using the ABC model. What does ABC stand for?
Activating event triggers …
Beliefs which are irrational; this produces …
Consequences – an emotional response.
It is the IRRATIONAL BELIEFS which trigger the response, not the event itself.

20. It is not the event but the irrational belief that triggers depression.
Activating event triggers …
Beliefs which are irrational; this produces …
Consequences – an emotional response.
A Liz declines Jez’s offer of a second date.
B Jez believes
I am worthless.
I will never succeed with anyone.
I am a total failure.
C Depression
This examples serves as an illustration of the ABC model.

21. Undesirable Behaviour
A: Activating event
Mary and her boyfriend split up.
Rational Thoughts
Mary tells herself that although it is a sad situation they were not compatible and she may learn from the experience.
Irrational Thoughts
Mary tells herself that the break up is her fault and that she is not loveable, and so will always fail at relationships.
B: Beliefs
(about A)
Desirable Emotions
Mary feels sad, but is hopeful that she will have successful relationships in the future.
Undesirable Emotions
Mary feels guilty that she spoilt the relationship and that she is unlovable.
Desirable Behaviour
Mary looks forward to forming new healthy relationships and tries to learn from her experience.
Undesirable Behaviour
Mary resolves not to form new relationships as she will only fail and get hurt again.
C: Consequences
(of B)

22. Examples of Irrational Beliefs
I must always achieve perfection.
I must be loved by every significant other.
I must be competent, adequate and achieving to be considered worthwhile.
It is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way I’d like them to be.
It is easier to avoid, than to face, difficulties and responsibilities in life.
I have no control over my sorrows and disturbed behaviour; it is caused by external factors.
If something dangerous could happen, I should dwell on it and be constantly concerned by it.
I need someone stronger than myself to rely on.
My past history determines my present behaviour.
This slide provides examples of irrational beliefs which are used in the exercise on the next slide. They are based on Ellis (1962).

23. D I Y
Use Ellis’s ABC model to explain the sequence in the following scenarios.
Try to use at least one of the irrational beliefs listed on the previous slide.
Eliot has a minor car crash which was not his fault.
Samina’s on a diet but eats a small piece of cake.
Lewis fails to save a shot in a penalty shoot out, having saved the previous four.
Students use the ABC model to explain some negative (but everyday) events.

24. Evaluation of Beck’s theory
It has good supporting evidence
Much research has supported the proposal that depression is associated with faulty information processing, negative self-schemas and the triad of impairments
It has practical application in CBT
Beck’s cognitive explanation forms the basis of cognitive- behavioural therapy. All cognitive aspects of depression can be challenged in CBT.
It does not explain all aspects of depression
The theory explains the basic symptoms of depression however it is a complex disorder with a range of symptoms, not all of which can be explained
Add to these notes by reading page 149

25. Evaluation of Ellis’ theory
It only offers a partial explanation
Some depression does occur as a result of an activating event (reactive depression). However not all depression arises as a result of an obvious cause
It has practical application in CBT
Like Beck’s explanation, Ellis’ explanation has led to successful therapy. Irrational negative beliefs are challenged and this can help to reduce depressive symptoms suggesting that the irrational beliefs had some role in the depression.
It does not explain all aspects of depression
This explanation also does not explain why some individuals experience anger associated with their depression or why some patients suffer hallucinations and delusions
Add to these notes by reading page 149

26. Alternative explanations
The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression
The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggest that neurotransmitters do play an important role; the medication alters the levels of specific neurotransmitters and reduces the symptoms.
At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable, suggesting that individuals with a genetic vulnerability for depression are more prone to the effects of living in a negative environment, which then leads to negative irrational thinking .

27. Evaluation sheet

28. a) An opportunity sample is not necessarily a representative sample of the target population.
b) A positive point concerning the sample of participants is the relatively large number as this increases the chances that it will be representative. A negative point is that are all students from one university so are likely to be similar in age, socioeconomic background and culture.
2. Any suitable method: random, systematic, stratified, volunteer. Student must explain how it would be done.
3. An advantage of questionnaires is that they are cost-effective. They can gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be distributed to large numbers of people. A disadvantage is that the responses given may not always be truthful. Respondents may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and this may influence their answers.

29. 4. Answers should be contextualised
4. Answers should be contextualised. Advantages of using an interview: no questions can be skipped over; people may be more likely to answer seriously and think carefully about their answers. Disadvantages of using an interview: more time consuming; more expensive as requires more people.
5. It is impossible to establish cause and effect from
correlational data. In this case, it is not possible say that the dysfunctional thoughts caused the depression or that depression caused the negative
thoughts.
6. The scattergram should show a positive relationship with labels saying scores on BDI and scores on ATQ on the axes (not just BDI and ATQ).
7. The results show a positive relationship between negative thoughts and depression as predicted by the theory.
8. They don’t show that depression is caused by negative thoughts only that there is a positive relationship between them.

30. Essay
Describe and evaluate the cognitive approach to explaining depression (12 marks – AS/16 marks A level)