1. Introduction to Memory C:\Documents and Settings\fac6l170\My Documents\My Videos
Why do we process certain
Information when other stimuli
passes us by.
We will be looking at
Short term memory
Long term memory

2. Think time

3. The difference between STM and LTM
Capacity
Duration
Encoding
Forgetting
STM
Very limited
(7 items)
Mainly acoustic
(By sound)
Mainly
Displacement
LTM
Unlimited
(A lifetime)
Mainly semantic
(By meaning)
Interference

4. Evidence for separate stores
Brain Damage: Shows some people lose the
Ability of one type of memory but not the other.
Case Study of Clive Wearing
STM damaged, but some of LTM intact
What aspect of Clive Wearing’s memory remained fully intact?

5. Evidence For separate stores
The Case of H.M. (Milner, 1966) – STM damaged, LTM intact
Hypothalamus Removed
“Some aspects of H. M.’s memory remained intact. He could, for example, learn basic motor tasks, but had to be reminded that he knew how to perform them!

6. Questions
Outline the evidence for a division between STM and LTM (2 marks)
Explain how studies of Brain Damage can support the argument for a division between STM and LTM (2 marks)
Give one criticism when using studies into Brain Damage (2 marks)

7. Capacity – how many can you remember?

8. Can you remember:
The capacity of STM and LTM?

9. Check your Capacity in STM
Write down 8 strings of numbers first with three numbers then add one more for each following string E.g. 265,2768, …and so on. Use different numbers each time
In pairs : One person read out your no’s while your partner writes them down immediately after hearing them.
Now swap roles. Note down your scores

10. Results of your STM
1: What is your score ( this is the longest strip of numbers you recalled )
2: The class mean =
STM suggested capacity (Jacobs, 1887 and Miller, 1956) is 7+/-2

11. We call this ‘Digit Span Technique’
Jacobs carried out this study (1887) and George Miller repeated this (1957) with similar findings, naming his study “The Magical Number Seven”
Capacity in STM = 7 +/- 2 digits
Miller believed it was the number
of chunks of information that was
important

12. Miller termed this: Chunking
C B T U O D S A G I L E P N G
CBT UOD SAG ILE PNG
CAT SUN LEG DOT PIG
Showing that capacity can appear to increase by chunking

13. Measuring the Capacity in STM
Simon (1974): argued
That it depended on the size
of the chunks. Small chunks
More capacity, larger chunks
smaller capacity.

14. Factors Affecting Capacity:
Rehearsal and storage in LTM: This will increase the capacity for STM
Reading digits aloud:
Strengthens memory
trace
Pronunciation time:
Lower capacity for
Arabic words than English as
they take longer to pronounce

15. Real Life Application
Baddeley discovered that e can chunk information, better if we using meaning at the beginning and then alternated using numbers and letters together.
i.e SW6 8PQ = South West London then some random numbers between more letters.

16. Questions
2) Outline one characteristics of short-term memory (2 marks)
3) Outline one study supporting the capacity of STM (2 marks)
4) Give one criticisms of the above study (2 marks)

17. Duration – how long can you remember for?

18. Duration in STM Peterson and Peterson:
Found that STM Deteriorated by 90% after
18 seconds
When rehearsal was prevented
information decayed or
disappeared more quickly

19. Peterson & Peterson Stimulus list:
Distant Cottage
Stable Bargain
Cabbage Finger
Mattress Landscape
Uncle Future
Minstrel
Question

20. This time after you have looked at the words
This time after you have looked at the words. You need to count back in 3’s from 100
Velvet Village
Stomach Carpet
Flower Favour
Gossip Lawful
Chamber Started
Sandal
Warehouse

21. Studies in Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959)
found that when participants
were given a 3-second interval
they could remember 90% of data.
However, when there was an
18- second interval retention
reduced.

22. Methodological Issues
Laboratory study using Repeated measures…
1. In groups, criticise this study
(use your research
methods terms)

23. Factors Affecting Duration in STM
Rehearsal: increases duration.
Intention to recall: When we are
under pressure to remember.
Relevance of information: - is the
information important to you?

24. Duration in LTM It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime.
Bahrick et al (1975)
tested memory and
found that after 34 years
memory was good, but
after 47 years there was
a decided dip.

25. Factors affecting duration in LTM
Feedback around the room:
Cues in experiments
Depth of learning
Pattern of learning
Nature of Material to be learned

26. Factors affecting duration in LTM
Cues in experiments: Cues (things that remind us) help recall, example recognition tasks were higher than recall tasks.
Depth of learning: The more time spent learning, the longer information stays.
Pattern of learning: Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning
Nature of Material to be learned: Meaningful information is better retained

27. True or False? (duration)
1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays.
2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime.
3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM
4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning
5. The relevance of information to us is not important
6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not

28. True or False ANSWERS
1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays: FALSE
2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime: TRUE
3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM: FALSE (IT IS TRUE FOR STM)
4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning: TRUE
5. The relevance of information to us is not important: FALSE
6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not: FALSE (CUES HELP US REMEMBER)

29. As stimuli reaches memory it is in it’s raw form. i. e
As stimuli reaches memory it is in it’s raw form. i.e. a visual picture or a sound It is believed that STM and LTM have different methods of encoding information
Encoding

30. 3 Main Types of Encoding Acoustic: The sound of the stimulus
Visual: The physical
appearance of the stimulus
Semantic: The
meaning of the stimulus

31. Task: In pairs
Explain how you could adapt your notes from class so that they are in an:
Acoustically memorable form
Visually memorable form
Semantically memorable form

32. Acoustic Coding in STM B G C T D V
Conrad ran a number of tests. Write these letters down in the correct serial order
Acoustically similar
B G C T D V

33. Second Condition. J G X M S F Acoustically dissimilar
Now write these letters down in the correct serial order
J G X M S F

34. Conclusion Conclusion: Conrad believed that we must convert
information FLOWER
that is visual into acoustic
to store it in STM
Therefore, participants were confused when faced with letters
that sounded the same
Methodology: A little low in validity, not everyday chore to place letters in order

35. Evidence for Encoding: STM and LTM
Baddeley suggested STM used Acoustic coding because we confuse acoustically similar words
He also found that words that
were similar in meaning
were poorly recalled in LTM.

36. Evidence for Encoding: Baddeley
Method: Baddeley gave participants lists of words that pertained to either one of these categories: accoustically similar, accoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar.
Participants were tested on immediate recall and on delayed recall.

37. Baddeley’s lists List A AS: Mad, map, mad, mat, cad, cap, cat.
List B AD: pen, cow, pit, sup, day , wet, ran
List C SS: tall, high, broad, wide, big, large, fat
List B SD: foul, thin, late, safe, strong, back, look

38. Evidence for Encoding:
Results:
Immediate recall showed that the most confusion arose between the acoustically similar words as opposed to the words that were acoustically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the semantically similar and dissimilar words.
In the delayed recall test, the most confusion arose between semantically similar words as opposed to words that were semantically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the acoustically similar and dissimilar words.

39. Task
Write a conclusion for Baddeley’s study into encoding, describing what can be concluded about encoding in STM and LTM. (4 marks)
Explain one criticism of Baddeley’s lab study (2 marks)

40. Evidence for different Encoding
Conrad (1964) found
that STM used acoustic
coding.

41. Multi Store Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) created The information-processing system to help explain how memory works

42. What is a Model ? Psychologists have used
flow charts to try and explain
how memory works
Information-processing
systems are similar to the
workings of acomputer.
There is a temporary
store, a STM and LTM store. Temporary store = buffer on a computer

43. The Multi Store Model Stimulus input Attention Rehearsal
Sensory memory STM LTM
Visual, auditory Acoustic coding semantic coding
‘Haptic’ coding limited capacity Unlimited capacity
Limited capacity brief duration Unlimited duration
Very brief duration
Rehearsal Loop

44. Evidence for a distinction between STM and LTM
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): When participants were distracted they lost the recency effect but not the primacy effect
Long term memory:
The Primacy effect
( beginning of a word list)
Short term memory:
Recency effect
( the end of a word list)
Their work showed that
there was a difference
between STM store and LTM store

45. Evaluating Glanzer and Cunitz (1966):
Laboratory studies: ?
Validity: ?

46. Weaknesses Different types of information:
Some data is a lot more exciting
and therefore easier to remember.
It’s not always about how much!
Repetition vs Semantic:
Craik and Lockhart found that
information is remembered better
if it is processed with meaning
rather than simple rehearsal.

47. Weaknesses Flashbulb memory: This supports Semantic
inputting Kulik and Brown
argue that shocking events
are imputed without rehearsal.
Linear: Ruchkin (1999)
Information in LTM helps
to improve recall from STM.
(words with meaning vs words
without)

48. Weaknesses Brain Damage: It has been shown that people with damaged
STM do not necessarily have
impairment to their LTM.
Artificial Experiments: Laboratory
experiments do not necessarily
show us how we behave in the
real world.

49. The Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch believe that memory is much more complex than the Multi-story model suggests. They focused on short-term memory as an active process with different components

50. The Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch believed that
there was more than one component
to STM.
One for information that we hear
One for information that we see.
Therefore we can do two tasks
at once, i.e. driving a car and
having a conversation at the same time
attention test - Google Video

51. The Components of working memory

52. The Working Memory Model
There are three different components
The Central Executive: Responsible for all the processing and attention tasks.
The Phonological Loop: The temporary storage system for verbal information.
The Visuo-spatial sketchpad: The temporary storage system for visual information

53. Recent model Baddeley (2000) 1.Central Executive 2.Episodic Buffer
4.Visio-spatial sketch pad
(Inner eye)
3.Phonological loop
Articulatory
Control system
(Inner voice)
Phonological store
(Inner ear)

54. This part of the loop holds
Phonological store:
This part of the loop holds
the words you hear, like
an inner ear.
Articulatory control system:
This is where words are silently
repeated or rehearsed, like an
inner voice.

55. Evidence for Working Memory
Baddeley et al ran numerous
experiments and found evidence
to support the existence of the Phonological loop, the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and the Central Executive

56. Evidence for the Visuo-Spatial
Baddeley et al (1973) showed two tasks
F H L Task one: identify the angles on a letter
Task two: Follow a spotlight
They could not do both tasks together.
They could do one visual task and
one auditory task.
This shows that there is a difference
between the phonological loop and the visual-spatial sketchpad

57. Evidence for the Phonological loop
Baddeley et al (1975): presented lists of words
With one syllable: Harm, Wit, Twice
With multi syllables: Organisation, University
It takes longer to say multi syllable word, therefore participant remembered more single syllable words
This shows that we remember information by listening to the word in our heads. Shorter words take shorter time to rehearse

58. Strength and Weaknesses of Working memory.
This model is generally accepted throughout the psychological world. It has a much more in-depth and logical interpretation of STM

59. WMM Information Tasks
Read and highlight the information on the WMM and as a group summarise 10 key points
Explain one case study and two lab studies that support the WMM.
Identify a criticism of each of the above research methods
Explain two weaknesses of the model (4 marks)

60. Evidence for the Central Executive
Some evidence from Neurological investigation shows that brain activity is increased when doing two tasks that require attention and rehearsal.
It is difficult to test the existence of a central executive.
There has been limited evidence given and this is one of the weaknesses of this theory

61. Lesson Objectives
Understand the concept that eyewitness testimony is not always reliable.
Know the procedures of experimental research into eyewitness testimony
Understand Reconstructive Memory

62. How accurate do we recall details of events witnessed.
Eye Witness Testimony
How accurate do we recall details of events witnessed.

63. Psychological Experiment

64. Misleading Information
Loftus discovered that a problem we have in recalling events often comes from stimuli experienced after the event.
Participants were
Shown a
Video clip of a
car accident.
misleading
information
Caused errors
in recall

65. Loftus’ Experiments Experiment 1: After watching the car.
Experiment 1: After watching the car
Crash Participants were asked
how fast the car was going.
Some questionnaires said how fast
Was the car going when it hit others
others used the word smashed or
Contacted instead or hit.
Experiment 2: Students were shown a
Video of a multiple car crash. One week
Later they were brought back and asked
Was there any broken glass? Again using
The various verbs; hit, smashed, or contacted

66. The Results of Both Experiments.
VERB
MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (mph)
Smashed
40.8
Collided
39.3
Bumped
38.1
Hit
34.0
Contacted
31.8
Results – Experiment 1
How fast was the car going?
Results – Experiment 2
Did you see any broken glass?
Response
Smashed
Hit
Control
Yes 16 7 6 No 34 43 44

67. Discussion Response Bias: critical words bias a person’s response.
Memory is altered: The critical
word changes a person’s memory.
Reconstructive memory
Information processing for an event:
1: The person’s own perception, during the event
2: Information supplied after the event

68. Demand Characteristics
Participants might have guessed the aim of the experiment and changed their behaviour
To reduce demand
characteristics Loftus
offered money to
participants who got
The recall correct.
Despite this incentive
over 70% still got
the recall details wrong.
Black et al

69. Methodology and Ethics
Laboratory experiments are high in reliability.
Although films of real events
were shown participants would
have experienced things
differently if they had been
present at the car crash.
Lack of validity/ emotional
response
Ethics: Participants were
deceived therefore debriefing
would be necessary afterwards

70. The Accuracy of EWT

71. Schemas Schema: Is our Preconceived ideas about certain experiences.
i.e. eating in a restaurant
Tuckey and Brewer (2003)
did an experiment on our
ideas about bank robbers
Participants recalled more
details if they were in line with their schema of such events.

72. Anxiety Loftus and Burns (1982) found that high levels of
anxiety negatively effect
memory.
When people witnessed a
Man with a knife covered
in blood leaving a room
Identification was poor.
To busy looking at the
knife.
Christianson and Hubinette discovered that in real life experiences of anxiety often heighten recall. Witness bank robbery > Being threatened by robbers.

73. Age of Participant
Children seem to accept what others tell them as part of their own memories (Poole and Lindsay 2001 = incorporate stories into real events)
Flin et al (1992) found
that children forget details
much quicker than adults.
Elderly people: Recall of
events is less accurate

74. Methodology and Ethics
There is difficulties in eliminating
extraneous variable with children
There are also ethical issues when
using children. Need informed
consent from parent.
In the real world when events happen
we are not expecting them therefore not
prepared to try and remember every
detail . + demand Characteristics.

75. Improving EWT

76. Method of Questioning Fisher (1987) discovered
If misleading information
has an affect of EWT then
it is important that the police
are careful not to misdirect
witnesses.
Fisher (1987) discovered
that police asked closed
questions which seems to
conflict with the witnesses
testimony. They also
frequently interrupted
breaking concentration.

77. The Cognitive Interview
Instructions to witness
Context
reinstatement
Recall what you were thinking, feeling and the scene beforehand
Report everything
Report everything, even trivia
Recall from changed
Perspective
Recall it from another’s point of view.
Recall in reverse order
Report from different ways moving backwards and forwards in time

78. Evidence for the Cognitive Interview
Geiselman et al (1985) found that the cognitive interview was better than the original method and hypnosis. More correct
details were recalled
But there was also
more mistakes
Fisher et al (1990)
discovered that police
in Miami were
impressed with results.

79. Evidence for the Cognitive Interview
Police have expressed a concern, with the increase incorrect detail, when using CI.
They believe that the context reinstatement and reporting everything are more useful than the other two categories
This has been backed up by psychologists Milne and Bull (2002)

80. Improving Memory Teaching strategies for memory improvement is a useful tool for future exams

81. Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery
The Peg Word System
One is bun
Two is Shoe
Three is tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six are Sticks
Seven is Heaven
Eight is a Gate
Nine is a Line
Ten is Hen

82. One is bun
Two is Shoe
Three is tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six are Sticks
Seven is Heaven
Eight is a Gate
Nine is a Line
Ten is Hen

83. Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery
The Peg Word System
Eggs
Bread
Biscuits
Tomatoes
Potatoes
Cheese
Jam
Pasta
Juice
Cornflakes

84. Six are Sticks
One is bun
Seven is Heaven
Two is Shoe
Three is tree
Eight is a Gate
Four is a door
Nine is a Line
Five is a hive
Ten is Hen

85. Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery
The Peg-word system: Where you thing of one word and then peg another on to help recall
The Method of Loci: Thing of things you see on your route to college. Then attach a list of item to each of the things on your route

86. Visual Imagery
Paivio (1965): found that people could remember words that were easy to put pictures to – concrete V abstract nouns
Beni and Moe (2003):
Present words + images together,
rather than words + words
or images + images

88. Improving Memory

89. Organisation and Understanding
Bransford and Johnson gave a passage to participant.
One with a title to the piece
One with no title (Content was not clear)
People remembered the title and that coupled with their schema helped recall.

90. Organisation in memory
Bransford and Johnson (1972) found that participants who were given a title to a passage of information found it easier to recall than those not given a title, as participants applied already stored knowledge on the topic to their understanding of the passage. This enhanced their recall later.

91. Chunking
As already noted, chunking increases the amount we can recall and also reduces the load on memory. A difficult task can be reduced to a simpler task for STM.

92. Encoding and retrieval strategies
We recall things better if we try and retrieve the information in the same context or situation as when we learnt it.
(Geiselman and Glenny (1977)

93. Active processing
We are more likely to remember material that we have actively processed. Simple rehearsal is not enough to lay down long-lasting memories.
Craik (1977) investigated recall of a word list under different conditions e.g. Is a word written in capital letters, does the word rhyme with another word, is it the name of a living thing.
They found that group 3 remembered more than groups 1 and 2 because they had to think about the meaning of the word rather than just look at its structure.

94. Attention and practice
If we don’t pay attention to material we cannot remember it (as looked at in EWT).
Practice is also important in order to remember large amounts of information for an exam, for example. Ericsson and Chase (1981) studied SF who could memorise up to 80 digits in one go – he had to practice for an hour a day over a two year period to do this!
However, you need to be aware of your own memory and what works best for you!