1. Roots of the American Interest Group System
15.1
Roots of the American Interest Group System
Theories of Interest Group Formation
Kinds of Organized Interests
As we've said, interest groups are organized collections of people or organizations that try to influence public policy. They differ from political parties because they do not run candidates for political office, though they may certainly support or oppose specific candidates. Interest groups go by many names, such as:
special interests
pressure groups
organized interests
nongovernmental organizations
political groups
lobby groups
public interest groups.
In this section we will talk about the different theories of interest group formation and the different kinds of groups.

2. Theories of Interest Group Formation
15.1
Theories of Interest Group Formation
Pluralist theory
Political power distributed among groups
Disturbance theory
Groups form in response to change
Transactions theory
Public policy results from transactions among political players.
There is no shortage of theories to explain how interest groups form and influence public policy. The pluralist theory, for example, argues that political power is divided among a wide range of competing interest groups.
Taken one step further, this becomes disturbance theory, which claims that interest groups form in response to changes in the political system.
In turn, groups that are opposed to the first group's interests will form as well, thus ensuring that a wide range of voices are active in the political system. Ironically, this is evident in the establishment of transactions theory, which arose out of criticism of the pluralist and disturbance approaches.
Transactions theorists suggest that policies are actually the result of narrowly defined exchanges or transactions among political actors. The transactions are narrow because the elite classes have more time and money available to mobilize into interest groups. Therefore, according to transactions theorists, the voices heard most often in the political system belong to the elites.

3. Kinds of Organized Interests
15.1
Kinds of Organized Interests
Public interest groups
Seek a collective good
Economic interest groups
Promote the economic interests of their members
Governmental units
State and local governments lobby, too
Political action committees
Officially registered fundraising organizations that represent interest groups
Interest groups can take may forms, as we've already said. Public interest groups, for example, seek a collective good for a larger group of people. Both the Civil Rights movement and the Progressive Era's push for better working and living conditions for immigrants fall under this category.
Economic interest groups, on the other hand, exist to promote the economic interests of their members. These include trade and professional organizations such as the American Medical Association and labor groups such as the AFL-CIO.
Next we have governmental units. In the increasingly complex world of federal policy and bureaucracy, state and local governments have found themselves needing to lobby for their interests as well.
Finally, we have Political Action Committees, which are officially registered fundraising organizations that represent interest groups in the political process.

4. 15.1
TABLE What are the Characteristics of Selected Interest Groups?
Let's take a quick look at Table 15.1, which shows us the membership levels and fundraising characteristics of some of the major interest groups. As you can see, the AARP tops the membership list with 40 million members, followed by the AFL-CIO, which we mentioned in the last slide, with 11.5 million members, and MoveOn.org, which has 5 million members. Of those three, only AARP does not also have a Political Action Committee.
Source: (November 10, 2012).

5. 15.1
15.1 Subscribers to this theory emphasize the role of the elites in interest group formation:
Pluralist theory
Disturbance theory
Transactions theory
None of the above
What have you learned so far about interest group formation?

6. 15.1
15.1 Subscribers to this theory emphasize the role of the elites in interest group formation:
Pluralist theory
Disturbance theory
Transactions theory
None of the above
Transactions theorists note that the elites have more time and money to mobilize to promote their interests. This means that not all voices are equally represented in the system.

7. The Development of American Interest Groups
15.2
The Development of American Interest Groups
National Groups Emerge (1830–1889)
The Progressive Era (1890–1920)
The Rise of the Interest Group State
The Framers of the Constitution wanted to minimize the influence of any single interest group on the new American government. This explains in part why they created a system with the extensive checks and balances that our Constitution has.
Yet, as careful as they were, there was no way they could have foreseen the vast sums of money that would, ultimately, come to define the interest group involvement in American politics and policy today. In this section, we'll trace the historical development of the modern interest group.

8. National Groups Emerge (1830–1889)
15.2
National Groups Emerge (1830–1889)
American Anti-Slavery Society
One of the first national groups
Women's Christian Temperance Union
Sought Prohibition
The Grange
Educated farmers and sought legislation
Business Interests
Standard Oil
Railroad
So, when and how did interest groups emerge? All kinds of local interest groups existed in America since the days of the colonies and early states. But it was not until the 1830s, when communication networks improved, that national groups began to form.
Often, these groups formed around a single issue. For example, the American Anti-Slavery Society, founded by William Lloyd Garrison, was one of the first national groups. The Women's Christian Temperance Union, which sought prohibition, is another example of an early national group. Following the Civil War, the Grange formed to help teach farmers about the latest agricultural developments and seek legislation to help them.
Business interests grew active during this time as well. People used to joke that the Standard Oil Company did everything to the Pennsylvania legislature except refine it. And in 1861 the Central Pacific Railroad sent its own lobbyist to Washington D.C. In turn, it received vast land grants and subsidized loans.

9. What were the first national groups to emerge following the civil war?
15.2
What were the first national groups to emerge following the civil war?
One of the first truly national groups was The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry or, more simply, the Grange, established in 1867 to educate and disseminate knowledge to farmers. The group also lobbied for farmers' interests in other areas, such as trust-busting.
Granger Collection

10. The Progressive Era (1890–1920)
15.2
The Progressive Era (1890–1920)
Organized Labor
American Federation of Labor
Clayton Act allowed unions to strike.
Business Groups and Trade Associations
National Association of Manufacturers
Chamber of Commerce
As you probably recall from earlier history courses, the Progressive movement rose in response to rapid industrialization and the poor working and living conditions that followed. Progressive Era interest groups called for everything from public libraries to unions to an end to racial discrimination. Out of this was born the organized labor movement.
The American Federation of Labor was the first national labor union of skilled workers and it had to push back hard when business interests sought to outlaw unions. Ultimately, the AFL was able to get the Clayton Act passed in This allowed unions to organize and even to strike.
In response to the growing strength of unions, the trade association National Association of Manufacturers was formed in It became very active politically in In fact, it was so forceful politically that President Woodrow Wilson called its tactics an "unbearable situation." Around this same time the Chamber of Commerce was created in 1912.

11. The Rise of the Interest Group State
15.2
The Rise of the Interest Group State
Conservative Response: Religious and Ideological Groups
Business Groups, Corporations, and Associations
Organized Labor
During the 1960s and 1970s, the spirit of the Progressive Era was as strong as ever. Public interest group membership and activity soared as groups fought for the rights and welfare of African Americans, women, the elderly, the poor, and consumers.
In response to the success of these efforts, conservatives launched their own interest groups. The Rev. Jerry Fallwell founded the Moral Majority in The Moral Majority played in important role in electing Ronald Reagan president in Ten years later televangelist Pat Roberts formed the Christian Coalition, whose influence was crucial to the Republican takeover of Congress in 1994.
But religious groups aren't the only conservative organizations with power. The National Rifle Association has raised and spent a great deal of money to defeat gun control laws. Business and labor groups have also risen in power. We have the Chamber of Commerce and the Business Roundtable, as well as the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations.

12. How is the face of union membership changing?
15.2
How is the face of union membership changing?
Historically, most union members were white, male, blue collar workers and female teachers. In more recent years, however, unions have become more female and more diverse. Part of this change is the result of broadening union membership to include service workers, such as those shown here protesting with the Service Employees Industrial Union (SEIU).
Michal Czerwonka/Getty Images

13. 15.2
15.2 Which statement concerning the rise of national interest groups is true?
Their rise followed improvements in communication networks.
They generally were concerned with one issue.
They tended to fall into the public interest category.
All of the above
Let's see what you have learned about the rise of national interest groups.

14. 15.2
15.2 Which statement concerning the rise of national interest groups is true?
Their rise followed improvements in communication networks.
They generally were concerned with one issue.
They tended to fall into the public interest category.
All of the above
As we've discussed, all of these statements apply to the rise of national interest groups beginning in the 1830s.

15. What Do Interest Groups Do?
15.3
What Do Interest Groups Do?
Lobbying
Election Activities
As we've seen with some of the interest groups we've already discussed, many don't start out political. But they may quickly become political if they decide legislation is the answer to their problem. Individuals may band together in an interest group to increase the volume of their voices in Washington, which in turn may lead to favorable legislation.
This doesn't come for free, however: Changes in law can increase the scope and cost of government, which affects taxpayers. In this section we will review the pros and the cons of interest group activity in our political system.

16. Lobbying 15.3 Lobbying congress Lobbying the executive branch
Lobbying the courts
Grassroots lobbying
Protests and radical activism
It's easy to see from this section what the top priority is for many interest groups: lobbying. Just to be clear, lobbying is defined as the activities of a group or organization that seeks to persuade political leaders to support the group's position. The term "lobbying" likely has its roots in the legislative lobbies where interest group members had to wait to speak to lawmakers.
Almost all interest groups lobby by testifying at hearings and contacting legislators. They may provide information to lawmakers and encourage their members to rally around the cause. Interest groups lobby by testifying, sending letters or s and, of course, giving campaign contributions. Lobbyists tend to work most closely with representatives who share their interests, and their effectiveness depends largely on their reputation for being fair and accurate.
Interests groups also lobby the executive branch, which has become more involved in recent years with shaping legislation, and the courts. Interest groups lobby the courts by filing lawsuits or "friend of the court" briefs in cases they are interested in. A lot of groups have been pretty successful with this type of lobbying.
Finally, we have grassroots lobbying, in which group members turn up the heat in some way on lawmakers, and radical activism. Radical activism uses highly visible tactics to change policy. Anti-war and animal activist groups are especially good at this, but the most famous example of this type of protest came early in our history with the Boston Tea Party.

17. 15.3 FIGURE 15.1 How Many Lobbyists Are There? How Much Do They Spend?
Each year, more than 10,000 lobbyists attempt to influence public policy in Congress and the federal agencies. This large-scale lobbying effort is an expensive industry, costing billions of dollars each year.
Source: Center for Responsive Politics,

18. 15.3 What role do lobbyists play in Congress?
This cartoon presents one popular view of how legislation gets enacted on Capitol Hill. Political science research, however, reveals that interest groups do not directly "buy" members' votes in a quid pro quo. They do, however, reward loyal supporters in Congress with campaign contributions and other incentives.
Used with the permissions of Mike Luckovich and Creators Syndicate. All rights reserved.

19. Election Activities 15.3 Candidate recruitment and endorsements
Getting out the vote
Rating the candidates or office holders
Campaign contributions
As you've already seen in the most recent election cycle, interest groups don't just try to influence what legislation gets passed. They try to influence who passes the legislation by becoming involved in the electoral process. Some groups recruit, endorse and may even provide financial assistance to political candidates they want to see in office. One example of such a group is EMILY's List, which was founded to support pro-choice Democratic women candidates.
The next step is, of course, getting those candidates elected. Many interest groups have impressive "Get out the vote" programs. They identify voters who are likely to support the group's position and actually drive them to the polls. Groups that don't have the resources to drive voters publish guides that rate candidates based on how closely they align to the group's positions and goals.
But money talks in politics, and interest groups can raise and distribute money to candidates in several ways. Their members can give directly to candidates, or the organization can create a Political Action Committee to coordinate giving to candidates. Recently, we have also seen so-called Super PACs, which raise money in support or opposition to a candidate or cause but may not coordinate directly with campaigns.

20. 15.3 FIGURE 15.2 How Much Money Do Interest Groups Spend on Elections?
Political action committees play an important role in national elections. The amount of money they spend and how it is allocated between Democrats and Republicans varies widely over interest group sectors.
Source: Data from the Center for Responsive Politics, accessed November 10, 2012.

21. 15.3
15.3 This type of lobbying activity has become a favorite of anti-war and animal activists:
Congressional lobbying
Executive branch lobbying
Lobbying the courts
Grassroots lobbying
Protests and radical activism
In this section, we looked at several tactics used by interest groups. Let's see what you have learned about them.

22. 15.3
15.3 This type of lobbying activity has become a favorite of anti-war and animal activists:
Congressional lobbying
Executive branch lobbying
Lobbying the courts
Grassroots lobbying
Protests and radical activism
Remember the Boston Tea Party? This was a form of radical activism, which has also become a favorite lobbying activity of ant-war groups and animal activists.
Activity: To provoke discussion on the influence of interest groups, bring in, or have students research before class (using the top contributing lobbying organizations in Washington, D.C.
• What types of groups appear in this list, and why?
• What does this list tell us about interest group politics and democracy?