1. Chapter 13:
Personality

2. Each dwarf has a distinct personality.
An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Each dwarf has a distinct personality.

3. Psychoanalytic Perspective
In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders. Their complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes.
Preview Question 1: What was Freud’s view of personality and its development?
Culver Pictures
Sigmund Freud
( )

4. Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms.
Culver Pictures
Sigmund Freud
( )

5. Exploring the Unconscious
A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their minds (free association) in order to tap the unconscious.

6. Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

7. Psychoanalysis
The process of free association (chain of thoughts) leads to painful, embarrassing unconscious memories. Once these memories are retrieved and released (treatment: psychoanalysis) the patient feels better.

8. Model of Mind
The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.

9. Personality Structure
Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego).

10. Fig. 12-2, p. 473 Figure 12.2: Freud’s model of personality structure.
Freud theorized that people have three levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The enormous size of the unconscious is often dramatized by comparing it to the portion of an iceberg that lies beneath the water’s surface. Freud also divided personality structure into three components—id, ego, and superego—which operate according to different principles and exhibit different modes of thinking. In Freud’s model, the id is entirely unconscious, but the ego and superego operate at all three levels of awareness.
Fig. 12-2, p. 473

11. Id, Ego and Superego
The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id and superego.
The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

12. Allegory of the Chariot
Plato also described a “tripartite soul”
Black Horse – deepest desires
White Horse – reasoning and logic
Chariot Driver – trying to control the two

13. Personality Development
Freud believed that personality formed during the first few years of life divided into psychosexual stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.

14. Psychosexual Stages
Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual stages.

15. Table 12-2, p. 477

16. Oedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.

17. Identification
Children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent. Through this process of identification, their superego gains strength that incorporates their parents’ values.
From the K. Vandervelde private collection

18. Defense Mechanisms
The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
2. Regression leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.
Preview Question 2: How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

19. Defense Mechanisms
3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.
4. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

20. Defense Mechanisms
5. Rationalization offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.
6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

21. Table 12-1, p. 475

22. Fig. 12-3, p. 475 Figure 12.3: Freud’s model of personality dynamics.
According to Freud, unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego sometimes lead to anxiety. This discomfort may lead to the use of defense mechanisms, which may temporarily relieve anxiety.
Fig. 12-3, p. 475

23. The Neo-Freudians
Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power.
Preview Question 3: Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?
National Library of Medicine
Alfred Adler ( )

24. The Neo-Freudians
Like Adler, Horney believed in the social aspects of childhood growth and development. She countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer from “penis envy.”
The Bettmann Archive/ Corbis
Karen Horney ( )

25. The Neo-Freudians
Jung believed in the collective unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a symbol of nurturance.
Archive of the History of American Psychology/ University of Akron
Carl Jung ( )

26. Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
Preview Question 4: What are projective tests, and how are they used?

27. Rorschach Inkblot Test
The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

28. Most Popular Responses: Bat (53%), Butterfly (39%)
Card 1:
Most Popular Responses: Bat (53%), Butterfly (39%)
When seeing card I, subjects often inquire on how they should proceed, and questions on what they are allowed to do with the card (e.g. turning it) are not very significant. Being the first card, it can provide clues about how subjects tackle a new and stressful task. It is not, however, a card that is usually difficult for the subject to handle, having readily available popular responses.

29. Most Popular Response: Two Humans
Card 3:
Most Popular Response: Two Humans
Card III is typically perceived to contain two humans involved in some interaction, and may provide information about how the subject relates with other people (specifically, response latency may reveal struggling social interactions).

30. Most Popular Responses: Animal hide, skin, rug
Card 4:
Most Popular Responses: Animal hide, skin, rug
Card IV is notable for its dark color and its shading (posing difficulties for depressed subjects), and is generally perceived as a big and sometimes threatening figure; compounded with the common impression of the subject being in an inferior position ("looking up") to it, this serves to elicit a sense of authority. The human or animal content seen in the card is almost invariably classified as male rather than female, and the qualities expressed by the subject may indicate attitudes toward men and authority.

31. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

32. Projective Tests: Criticisms
Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to).
When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability).
2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity).

33. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
Modern Research
Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood.
Freud underemphasized peer influence on the individual, which may be as powerful as parental influence.
Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of age.

34. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
Modern Research
There may be other reasons for dreams besides wish fulfillment.
Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices.
Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased, but psychological disorders have not.

35. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind.
The majority of children, death camp survivors, and battle-scarred veterans are unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.

36. The Modern Unconscious Mind
Modern research shows the existence of non-conscious information processing. This involves:
schemas that automatically control perceptions and interpretations
the right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain patient’s left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize
parallel processing during vision and thinking
implicit memories
emotions that activate instantly without consciousness
self-concept and stereotypes that unconsciously influence us
Preview Question 5: How do contemporary psychologists view Freud and the unconscious?

37. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanation.

38. Humanistic Perspective
By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.
Preview Question 6: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
Abraham Maslow
( )
Carl Rogers
( )

39. Self-Actualizing Person
Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential.
Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Getty Images

40. Fig. 12-11, p. 489 Figure 12.11: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
According to Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, and people must satisfy their basic needs before they can satisfy higher needs. In the diagram, higher levels in the pyramid represent progressively less basic needs. Individuals progress upward in the hierarchy when lower needs are satisfied reasonably well, but they may regress back to lower levels if basic needs are no longer satisfied.
Fig , p. 489

41. Figure 12.12: Maslow’s view of the healthy personality.
Humanistic theorists emphasize psychological health instead of maladjustment. Maslow’s description of characteristics of self-actualizing people evokes a picture of the healthy personality. Source: Adapted from Potkay, C. R., & Allen, B. P. (1986). Personality: Theory, research and application. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Copyright © 1986 by C. R. Potkay & B. P. Allen. Adapted by permission of the author.
Fig , p. 490

42. Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.

43. Assessing the Self
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept.
Preview Question 7: How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.

44. Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve.
Preview Question 8: How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?

45. Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
Criticisms
Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis.
The individualism encouraged can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, and an erosion of moral restraints.
Humanistic psychology fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for evil. It lacks adequate balance between realistic optimism and despair.

46. The Trait Perspective
An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality.
Examples of Traits
Honest
Dependable
Moody
Impulsive

47. Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits.
Exploring Traits
Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits.
Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost 18,000 words representing traits.
One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is through factor analysis, a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits.
Preview Question 9: How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

48. Factor Analysis
Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability.

49. Biology and Personality
Personality dimensions are influenced by genes.
Brain-imaging procedures show that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low.
Genes also influence our temperament and behavioral style. Differences in children’s shyness and inhibition may be attributed to autonomic nervous system reactivity.

50. Assessing Traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once.
Preview Question 10: What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

51. MMPI
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to identify emotional disorders.
The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.

52. MMPI Test Profile

53. The Big Five Factors
Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment.
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion
Preview Question 11: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

54. Fig. 12-1, p. 471 Figure 12.1: The five-factor model of personality.
Trait models attempt to analyze personality into its basic dimensions. McCrae and Costa (1985, 1987, 1997) maintain that personality can be described adequately with the five higher-order traits identified here, which are widely referred to as the Big Five.
Fig. 12-1, p. 471

55. Endpoints

56. Questions about the Big Five
Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development.
1. How stable are these traits?
Fifty percent or so for each trait.
2. How heritable are they?
These traits are common across cultures.
3. How about other cultures?

57. Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.
Preview Question 12: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

58. The Person-Situation Controversy
Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average behavior remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.

59. The Person-Situation Controversy
Traits are socially significant and influence our health, thinking, and performance (Gosling et al., 2000).
John Langford Photography
Samuel Gosling

60. Consistency of Expressive Style
Expressive styles in speaking and gestures demonstrate trait consistency.
Observers are able to judge people’s behavior and feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one particular case as little as 2 seconds.

61. Social-Cognitive Perspective
Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context.
Preview Question 13: In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality?
Albert Bandura

62. Individuals & Environments
Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact
Different people choose different environments.
The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions.
Our personalities shape how we react to events.
Anxious people react to situations differently than relaxed people.
Our personalities shape situations.
How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.

63. Behavior
Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.

64. Personal Control
Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.
External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.
Preview Question 14: What are the causes and consequences of personal control?
Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.

65. Learned Helplessness
When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.

66. Optimism vs. Pessimism
An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or negative events.
Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

67. Positive Psychology and Humanistic Psychology
Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, seeks positive subjective well-being, positive character, and positive social groups.
Courtesy of Martin E.P. Seligman, PhD Director,
Positive Psychology Center/ University of Pennsylvania
Martin Seligman

68. Assessing Behavior in Situations
Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in realistic and simulated situations because they find that it is the best way to predict the behavior of others in similar situations.
Preview Question 15: What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behavior and beliefs?

69. Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective on personality sensitizes researchers to the effects of situations on and by individuals. It builds on learning and cognition research.
Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics.
Preview Question 16: What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?

70. Exploring the Self
Research on the self has a long history because the self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a critical part of our personality.
Research focuses on the different selves we possess. Some we dream and others we dread.
Research studies how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).

71. Benefits of Self-Esteem
Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy self-image (self-esteem). The following are two reasons why low self-esteem results in personal problems.
When self-esteem is deflated, we view ourselves and others critically.
Low self-esteem reflects reality, our failure in meeting challenges, or surmounting difficulties.
Preview Question 17: Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?

72. Culture & Self-Esteem
People maintain their self-esteem even with a low status by valuing things they achieve and comparing themselves to people with similar positions.

73. Self-Serving Bias
We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.
Self-handicapping is how many protect their self-image by creating a ready excuse for failure. We protect our self-image by attributing our failure to external factors rather than to ourselves, creating a no-lose situation for our self-esteem. .