1. Economic Efficiency, Government Price Setting, and Taxes

2. Should the Government Control Apartment Rents?
New York City
… About one million of New York City’s two million apartments are subject to rent control. The other one million apartments have their rents determined in the market by the demand and supply for apartments.

3. Economic Efficiency, Government Price Setting, and Taxes
Price ceiling A legally determined maximum price that sellers may charge.
Price floor A legally determined minimum price that sellers may receive.

4. Consumer Surplus And Producer Surplus
4 - 1
The Demand Curve is Also the Marginal Benefit Curve
Marginal benefit The additional benefit to a consumer from consuming one more unit of a good or service.
Consumer surplus The difference between the highest price a consumer is willing to pay and the price the consumer actually pays.

5. Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus
4 - 2
Total Consumer Surplus in the Market for Chai Tea

6. 4 - 1 The Consumer Surplus from Satellite Television
How much consumer surplus will the owner of this satellite dish receive?

7. Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus
4 - 3
Producer Surplus
Marginal cost The additional cost to a firm of producing one more unit of a good or service.
Producer surplus The difference between the lowest price a firm would have been willing to accept and the price it actually receives.

8. Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus
What Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus Measure
Consumer surplus measures the benefit to consumers from participating in a market, and producer surplus measures the benefit to producers from participating in a market.

9. The Efficiency of Competitive Markets
Marginal Benefit Equals Marginal Cost in Competitive Equilibrium
4 - 4
Marginal Benefit Equals Marginal Cost Only at Competitive Equilibrium

10. The Efficiency of Competitive Markets
Economic Surplus
4 - 5
Economic Surplus Equals the Sum of Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus

11. The Efficiency of Competitive Markets
Deadweight Loss
4 - 6
When a Market Is Not in Equilibrium There is a Deadweight Loss
Deadweight loss The reduction in economic surplus resulting from a market not being in competitive equilibrium.

12. The Efficiency of Competitive Markets
Economic Surplus and Economic Efficiency
Economic efficiency A market outcome in which the marginal benefit to consumers of the last unit produced is equal to its marginal cost of production, and where the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus is at a maximum.

13. Government Intervention in the Market: Price Floors And Price Ceilings
Price Floors: The Example of Agricultural Markets
4 - 7
The Economic Effect of a Price Floor in the Wheat Market

14. 4 - 2 Price Floors in Labor Markets: The Minimum Wage
Many economists believe there are better policies than the minimum wage for raising the incomes of low-skilled workers.

15. Government Intervention In The Market: Price Floors And Price Ceilings
Price Ceilings: The Example of Rent Controls
4 - 8
The Economic Effect of a Rent Ceiling
Don’t Confuse “Scarcity” with a “Shortage.”

16. Government Intervention In The Market: Price Floors And Price Ceilings
Black Markets
Black markets Buying and selling at prices that violate government price regulations.

17. 4 - 1
What’s the Economic Effect of a “Black Market” for Apartments?

18. Caution: Gift giving may lead to deadweight loss.
4 - 3
Does Holiday Gift Giving Have a Deadweight Loss?
Caution: Gift giving may lead to deadweight loss.

19. Government Intervention In The Market: Price Floors And Price Ceilings
The Results of Government Intervention: Winners, Losers, and Inefficiency
When the government imposes price floors or price ceilings, three important results occur:
Some people win.
Some people lose.
There is a loss of economic efficiency.
Positive and Normative Analysis of Price Ceilings and Price Floors
Whether rent controls are desirable or undesirable is a normative question. Whether the gains to the winners more than make up for the losses to the losers and for the decline in economic efficiency is a matter of judgment and not strictly an economic question.

20. The Economic Impact of Taxes
The Effect of Taxes on Economic Efficiency
4 - 9
The Effect of a Tax on the Market for Cigarettes

21. The Economic Impact of Taxes
Tax Incidence: Who Actually Pays a Tax?
Tax incidence The actual division of the burden of a tax between buyers and sellers in a market.

22. The Economic Impact of Taxes
Tax Incidence: Who Actually Pays a Tax?
DETERMINING TAX INCIDENCE ON A DEMAND AND SUPPLY GRAPH
4 - 10
The Incidence of a Tax on Gasoline

23. 4 - 2 When Do Consumers Pay All of a Sales Tax Increase?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4
When Do Consumers Pay All of a Sales Tax Increase?

24. The Economic Impact Of Taxes
Tax Incidence: Who Actually Pays a Tax?
DOES IT MATTER WHETHER THE TAX IS ON BUYERS OR SELLERS?
4 - 11
The Incidence of a Tax on Gasoline Paid by Buyers

25. 4 - 4
Is the Burden of the Social Security Tax Really Shared Equally between Workers and Firms?
How much FICA do you think this employee pays?

26. The Romance of Rent Control
Figure 1: In (a), the elimination of rent control causes an increase from Q1 to Q2 in the quantity of apartments being rented. In (b) this causes the demand for currently non-rent-controlled apartments to shift to the left from D1 to D2. The equilibrium rent declines from $2,000 to $1,500.

27. Black market
Consumer surplus
Deadweight loss
Economic efficiency
Economic surplus
Marginal benefit
Marginal cost
Price ceiling
Price floor
Producer surplus
Tax incidence

28. Appendix 4A: Quantitative Demand and Supply Analysis
Demand and Supply Equations
4A-1
Graphing Supply and Demand Equations
After statistically estimating supply and demand equations, we can use the equations to draw supply and demand curves.
QD = 3,000,000 – 1,000P
QS = – 450, ,300P
QD = QS

29. Appendix 4A: Quantitative Demand and Supply Analysis
Calculating Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus
4A-2
Calculating the Economic Effect of Rent Controls
CONSUMER SURPLUS
PRODUCER SURPLUS
DEADWEIGHT LOSS
COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIUM
$1,125
$865.50 $0
RENT CONTROL
$1,338.75
$278
$373.75