1. The Media
Unit 2
AP Government

2. Food for Thought… Thomas Jefferson
Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter.
Thomas Jefferson

3. Food for Thought… Adlai Stevenson (1956)
The idea that you can merchandise candidates for high office like breakfast cereal is the ultimate indignity to the democratic process.
Adlai Stevenson (1956)

4. 1st Amendment
Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech or of the press...
Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution, 1789.

5. Confidentiality of Sources
Is it a 1st Amendment Right?
Traditionally reporters don’t have to reveal sources
However, recently some been jailed for refusing to do so

6. BIG Questions
Why do modern day politicians worry about the media so much?
Can we trust the media to be fair?
Should people care about getting the correct information?

7. Should the Media be a… Scorekeeper? Watchdog? Gatekeeper?
Tracking and making political reputations
Watchdog?
Exposing scandal
Gatekeeper?
Passing judgments on topics that then become national issues

8. Or perhaps all three?? Scorekeeper Watchdog Gatekeeper
Tracking and making political reputations
Watchdog
Exposing scandal
Gatekeeper
Passing judgments on topics that then become national issues

9. Evolution of Journalism and Media
1690 to ’s
Partisan/Party press
Small circulation, expensive to buy
Elites only
Gov. subsidized president’s party “press”
Starting in 1840’s
Penny/Popular press Partisan views
High speed, less cost
Mass circulation- needs sensational stories to sell

10. Late 1800’s/Early 1900’s Joseph Pulitzer William Randolph Hearst
Sensationalism reaches high point
Yellow journalism: sensationalist. Unethical/unprofessional practices by news media organizations or individual journalists.
Centered on competition war between 2 media giants
Joseph Pulitzer
William Randolph Hearst
Today’s press still uses some of these techniques
“If it bleeds it leads”

11. Yellow Journalism
Spanish American War 1st tabloid topic- late 19th century
“To Hell with Spain, Remember the Maine!”

12. 1890’s-1920’s Exposure of corruption by press
Muckraker: investigative reporter who exposes corruption
Issues like: political corruption, corporate crime, child labor, conditions in slums and prisons, unsanitary conditions in food processing plants (such as meat), fraudulent claims by manufacturers of patent medicines, labor racketeering, and similar topics.
Most usually associated with Progressive Era in s
Upton Sinclair
Most famous muckraker
Exposed meat packing industry in novel, The Jungle

13. Technology Progresses- 1
Radio news- 1920’s and 1930’s
FDR fireside speeches

14. Technology Progresses- 2
Television- 1950’s- today
Nixon/Kennedy debates
Live for voters
Vietnam on TV
First time (Living Room War)
Immediate coverage
Election returns
Challenger explosion
9-11

15. Technology Progresses
Internet- 1990’s- today
Major news outlets and Blogs, unreliable sites??”

16. Since 9-11 People watch national news more often
More viewers more likely to have different viewpoints
Thus….bias claims have grown!
Has news changed or just viewers??

17. Campaign Ads…

18. Campaign Ads…

19. Because content broadcast over the airwaves is publicly owned and therefore faces greater government regulation!
Current Media Trends
Why are stations broadcast over the airwaves (like the major networks) subject to more FCC regulations than cable stations?
Print Media
Newspapers
Journals, magazines
Wire services
Broadcast Media
Traditional radio and TV stations
Networks and affiliates
Cable, satellite
CNN, Fox News
“New” Media
Internet, Blogs…

20. Government Regulations
Regulates electronic media
Federal Communications Commission
1996- Telecommunications Act
Deregulated whole segments of electronic media
Tried to balance corporate profits with consumer needs
Result: Huge conglomerates like Viacom and Time Warner bought HUGE segments of media
2003- FCC added reforms that allowed media outlets to own more than 1 type in market
(Clear Channel has 6 radio stations in Atlanta)

21. Communications Decency Act of 1996
Tried to address indecency on Internet.
In response to fears that Internet pornography was on rise.
Landmark 1997 decision: Supreme Court ruled Internet unique medium entitled to highest protection under free speech protections
Blocked by federal courts saying was too broad
CDA prohibited posting "indecent" or "patently offensive" materials in public forum on Internet -- including web pages, newsgroups, chat rooms, or online discussion lists.
Would have included texts of classic fiction such as Catcher in the Rye and Ulysses
Gave Internet same free speech protection as print media.

22. The Communications Decency Act of 1996
The Communications Act of 1996 tried to address indecency on the Internet.
It was introduced in response to fears that Internet pornography was on the rise.
In a landmark 1997 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the Internet is a unique medium entitled to the highest protection under the free speech protections of the First Amendment to the US Constitution.
It was blocked by federal courts saying it was too broad
The CDA prohibited posting "indecent" or "patently offensive" materials in a public forum on the Internet -- including web pages, newsgroups, chat rooms, or online discussion lists.
This would have included the texts of classic fiction such as the Catcher in the Rye and Ulysses
This gave the Internet same free speech protection as print media.

23. Government Regulations
Regulates electronic media (via Federal Communications Commission)
Broadcast Television and Radio
Licensed and regulated
FCC rules, 7 dirty words, Janet Jackson…
Fines are applied!
Cable
Little or no regulations

24. “Rules” of the Game for Broadcast TV and Radio
Fairness doctrine- Abolished in 1987
Required radio and TV broadcasters to air contrasting views on controversial public issues. ... but some still follow
Equal time rule-
Requires = air time for all major candidates competing for political office.
Air time NOT free- candidates MUST pay
Political editorializing rule-Abolished in 2000
Stations that endorse candidate for office required to give candidate’s opponents free rebuttal time.
Right of reply rule
Broadcasting stations obliged to offer "reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views".
Wording important: "reasonable" rather than equal. Coverage not measured with stopwatch. Simply all sides of debate get heard.

25. Print Media Newspapers and Magazines
No “prior restraint” (Government prohibition of speech in advance of publication. 1 fundamental right guaranteed by 1st Amendment is freedom from prior restraint)
In other words, more freedom and less rules than broadcast media
Can be sued for libel AFTER publication of controversial articles

26. Can a Story go too Far?? Libel (written slander)* Is it true?
Is it false?*
Is it misreported on purpose?*
Is it misreported by mistake?

27. Can a Story go too Far?? Obscenity in media Does it incite violence?
Playboy, Penthouse, Hustler…
Does it have social value?
Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell
Does it incite violence?
Schenck v US

28. FCC v Fox TV Stations (2009)
2004: Fox TV Stations broadcast Billboard Music Awards
Cher used an explicative in acceptance speech, and presenter (Nicole Ritchie) used 2 expletives.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued notices of liability to Fox for broadcasting the profane language.

29. Question of Law
Is the FCC's order imposing liability on for “fleeting expletives” used on Fox, "arbitrary" based on the FCC's previous acceptance of similar expletives
Bono in 2001
Does FCC need to prove its change in policy is "better" than its prior rule?

30. Importance of Case X Importance of Ruling
No. Supreme Court held that FCC's order neither "arbitrary"
No. FCC need merely prove that new policy "permissible" and there are good reasons for it

31. Media Coverage of Congress
Senate- broadcasts since 1950
House- no cameras until 1978
Today…it’s 24/7!!!
C-Span
C-Span 2
Every word every hour on tape

32. Media Coverage of President
FDR master of media
Fireside chats
Protected him from prying cameras
State of Union not a story until FDR
Large press corps today
Daily press updates by press secretary
On campaign trail with candidates

33. Bully Pulpit
Term stems from T. Roosevelt's reference to White House as "bully pulpit," meaning terrific platform from which to persuasively advocate an agenda.
Often used word "bully" as adjective meaning superb/wonderful.

34. Are Stories Slanted?? Routine news stories Feature stories
Least biased since all stations/papers will cover
Feature stories
More bias
Journalists pick and choose
Exciting to cover
Scandal sells

36. Looking for Bias in the Media
Bias: word that identifies collective influences of entire context of a message.
Is there such a thing as an objective point of view??
“No matter how much we may try to ignore it, human communication always takes place in a context, through a medium, and among individuals and groups who are situated historically, politically, economically, and socially.” .

37. Looking for Bias in the Media

39. Government Constraints?
Should government place constraints on journalists?
Should reporters…
Strike more of a balance?
Express more neutral views?
Become mouthpiece for all sources?
Dig deeper?
Be arrested?
Look for other jobs? 

40. Media as a Linkage Institution
How does the media connect you to the government?
Interviewing citizens (gathering opinion)
Presenting poll results (influencing opinion?)
Coverage of government actions/protest
The “fourth branch?”
News media – emphasizes government actions
More interactive
Infotainment
Where does social media fit into this?

41. Media as a Linkage Institution

45. Where do you fit in this equation?
Fully seven-in-ten of those ages either prefer or only use mobile for getting their digital news, compared with 53% of those 30-49, 29% of those and just 16% of those 65+.

48. Important Freedom of the Press Cases
John Peter Zenger case (1733)
New York Times v Sullivan (1964)
New York Times v US (1973)

49. New York Weekly Journal
Zenger Case- 1733
Facts
John Peter Zenger began publishing newspaper in NY to voice opposition to policies of newly appointed colonial governor William Cosby.
November 17, 1734: Zenger arrested, charged with seditious libel.
Rebuffed repeatedly by Chief Justice Delancey during trial, Zenger’s lawyer decided to plead client's case directly to jury.
The burning of Zenger's
New York Weekly Journal
(Bettman Archive)

50. Importance of Case
Verdict: not guilty on charge of publishing "seditious libels." 
Idea that truth is absolute defense against libel established in case
Zenger trial: root of today’s free press in America
Zenger's lawyer stands up for freedom of the press courtesy, Chronicle of America

51. New York Times v Sullivan- 1964
Facts
Full-page ad in NY Times alleged that arrest of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. for perjury in AL part of campaign to destroy King's efforts to integrate public facilities and encourage blacks to vote
L. B. Sullivan, Montgomery city commissioner, filed libel action against newspaper and 4 black ministers who were listed as endorsers of ad, claiming that allegations against Montgomery police defamed him personally.
Question of law
Did Alabama's libel law, by not requiring Sullivan to prove that an advertisement personally harmed him and dismissing the same as untruthful due to factual errors, unconstitutionally infringe on 1st Amendment's freedom of speech and freedom of press protections?

52. Importance
Court held 1st Amendment protects publication of all statements, even false ones, about conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice (with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of truth). Sullivan's case collapsed.
Just publishing “defamatory falsehood” not enough to win libel case
Writer/publisher must have “actual malice”

53. New York Times v US (1973)
Known as "Pentagon Papers Case,” Nixon Administration attempted to prevent NY Times and Washington Post from publishing materials belonging to classified Defense Department study regarding history of US activities in Vietnam.
Daniel Ellsburg: federal employee caught copying documents concerning war. When FBI finally caught him in June 1971, charged with 12 felonies and faced 115 years in jail.
President argued prior restraint necessary to protect national security.
Pentagon Papers case
Question-
Did Nixon administration's efforts to prevent publication of what it termed "classified information" violate 1st Amendment?

54. Importance Court ruled against US
Held that government didn’t overcome "heavy presumption against" prior restraint of press in case.
Justices Black and Douglas argued that vague word "security" shouldn’t be used "to abrogate the fundamental law embodied in the 1st Amendment."
Justice Brennan reasoned since publication would not cause an inevitable, direct, and immediate event imperiling safety of American forces, prior restraint unjustified.

55. Bias in the news media Is the news media biased toward liberals?
Is the news media biased toward conservatives?

56. Bias in the news media Is the news media biased toward liberals?
Yes.
Is the news media biased toward conservatives?

57. Political Effects of the Media
A.REINFORCEMENT
Supporting positions already held
B.FILTERING
Audience's values determine whether to agree or disagree with policy positions reported (the effects of political socialization)
C. SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
The interpretation of messages so that they agree with already held beliefs
D.SELECTIVE EXPOSURE
Screening out those messages disagreed with

58. THE MEDIA SEEM TO HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON POLICY PREFERENCES
A. THEY ARE ONLY REPORTING WHAT IS ALREADY GOING ON
B. The new data contradicts what was previously thought about the media determining the outcome of elections and reporters influencing events
C. AGENDA SETTING
What's important and what's not (what issues are we talking about and thinking about)
D. ISSUE FRAMING
How issues are discussed effects the outcome (how the media frames a KKK rally. Is it “freedom of speech” or “promoting violence and hatred.”

59. The Media’s Influence on the Public
A. Reporting can sway people who are uncommitted and have no strong opinions
B. Media have a much greater impact on topics far removed from the lives and experiences of readers and viewers
C. News organizations can help tell us what issues to think about, but has little influence on pre-existing opinions and opinion formation. Only serves to reinforce existing opinions.