1. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
14th Edition
CHAPTER 2
The Chemical Level of Organization
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2. Introduction The purpose of the chapter is to:
Introduce the language and fundamental concepts of chemistry
Discuss how matter is organized
Discuss how chemical bonds form and how chemical reactions occur
Compare and contrast organic and inorganic compounds
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3. Basic Principles of Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of structure and interactions of matter
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space
Mass is the amount of matter a substance contains, whereas weight is the force of gravity acting on a mass
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4. Chemical Elements Matter exists in 3 forms:
Solid
Liquid
Gas
All forms of matter are composed of chemical elements
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5. Elements Elements are given chemical symbols such as:
O = oxygen
C = carbon
H = hydrogen
N = nitrogen
These elements make up the majority of our bodies
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6. Trace Elements of the Human Body
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7. Atoms
Chemical elements are composed of units of matter of the same type called atoms
Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element
Atoms are composed
of protons, neutrons,
and electrons
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8. Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
Isotopes
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9. Atomic Mass Atomic mass assumes the mass of a:
Neutron = daltons
Proton = daltons
Electron = daltons
The atomic mass/weight of an element is the average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes
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10. Ions, Molecules, and Compounds
Ion – an atom that has lost or gained an electron
Molecule – 2 or more atoms sharing electrons
Compound – a substance that can be broken down into 2 or more different elements
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11. Interactions Animation:
Chemical Bonding
Interactions Animation:
Chemical Bonds
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12. Chemical Bonds
A chemical bond occurs when atoms are held together by forces of attraction
The number of electrons in the valence shell determines the likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom
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13. Ionic Bonds Cations vs. Anions
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14. Covalent Bonds Single, double, and triple bonds
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15. Covalent Bonds
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16. Hydrogen Bonds
In a hydrogen bond, 2 other atoms associate with a hydrogen atom
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17. Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction occurs when new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken
Reactants – starting substances
Products – ending substances
Metabolism
Law of conservation of mass
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18. Forms of Energy & Chemical Reactions
Energy is the capacity to do work
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Chemical energy
Law of conservation of energy
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19. Energy Transfer Exergonic vs. endergonic reactions Activation energy
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20. Catalysts
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21. Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis
Decomposition
Exchange
Reversible
Oxidation-reduction
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22. Inorganic vs. Organic Compounds
Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon and are simple molecules
Water is the most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living things
Organic compounds always contain H, usually contain O, and always have covalent bonds
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23. Interactions Animation:
Properties of Water
Interactions Animation:
Polarity and Solubility of Molecules
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24. Water as a Polar Molecule
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25. Water as a Solvent
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26. Water in Chemical Reactions
Water is the ideal medium
In a hydrolysis reaction, water is added to break bonds
In a dehydration synthesis reaction, water is removed to make bonds
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27. Water’s Thermal Properties
Water has a:
High heat capacity
High heat of vaporization
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28. Water as a Lubricant
Water is a major component of our body fluids and helps reduce friction as membranes and organs slide over one another
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29. Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions
Mixture – a combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bonded together
3 types of mixtures:
Solution
Colloid
Suspension
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30. Percentage & Molarity
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31. Acids, Bases, & Salts
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32. pH
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33. Interactions Animation:
pH and Buffers
Interactions Animation:
Acids and Bases
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34. Buffer Systems Maintenance of body fluid homeostasis is critical
Buffer systems help to regulate pH by converting strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases
H+ + HCO3-  H2CO3
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35. Carbon Organic compounds always contain carbon
Many carbons can combine in a variety of shapes
Carbon compounds do not dissolve easily in water
Carbon compounds are a good source of energy
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36. Functional Groups of Carbon
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37. Functional Groups of Carbon
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38. Functional Groups of Carbon
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39. Functional Groups of Carbon
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40. Functional Groups of Carbon
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41. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates provide most of the energy needed for life
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42. Monosaccharides
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43. Disaccharides
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44. Polysaccharides
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45. Lipids
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46. Fatty Acids Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated
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47. Triglycerides Triglycerides proved protection, insulation, and energy
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48. Phospholipids
Phospholipids are an important component of cell membranes
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49. Steroids
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50. Proteins
Proteins give structure to the body, regulate processes, provide protection, assist in muscle contraction, transport substances, and serve as enzymes
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51. Amino Acids Proteins are formed by combining various amino acids
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52. Polypeptides
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53. Organization of Proteins
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54. Enzymes An enzyme is a catalyst in a living cell Enzymes are:
Highly specific
Extremely efficient
Subject to cellular controls
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55. Enzymes
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56. Interactions Animation:
Enzymes
Interactions Animation:
Enzyme Functions and ATP
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57. DNA & RNA
DNA forms the genetic code in the nuclei of body cells and it regulates most of the cell’s activities
RNA guides protein formation
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58. DNA vs. RNA
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59. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is the principal energy-storing molecule in the body
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60. End of Chapter 2
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