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Cell-to-cell communication is essential for multicellular organisms
Biologists have discovered some universal mechanisms of cellular regulation providing more evidence for the evolutionary relatedness of all life Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Local and Long-Distance Signaling
Cells in a multicellular organism communicate by chemical messengers Animal and plant cells have cell junctions that directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells In local signaling, animal cells may communicate by direct contact, or cell-cell recognition Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Gap junctions between animal cells Plasmodesmata between plant cells
Fig. 11-4 Plasma membranes Gap junctions between animal cells Plasmodesmata between plant cells (a) Cell junctions Figure 11.4 Communication by direct contact between cells (b) Cell-cell recognition
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In many other cases, animal cells communicate using local regulators, messenger molecules that travel only short distances In long-distance signaling, plants and animals use chemicals called hormones Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Fig. 11-5 Local signaling Long-distance signaling Target cell Electrical signal along nerve cell triggers release of neurotransmitter Endocrine cell Blood vessel Neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse Secreting cell Secretory vesicle Hormone travels in bloodstream to target cells Local regulator diffuses through extracellular fluid Target cell is stimulated Target cell Figure 11.5 Local and long-distance cell communication in animals (a) Paracrine signaling (b) Synaptic signaling (c) Hormonal signaling
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The Three Stages of Cell Signaling: A Preview
Earl W. Sutherland discovered how the hormone epinephrine acts on cells Sutherland suggested that cells receiving signals went through three processes: Reception Transduction Response Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Plasma membrane 1 Reception Receptor Signaling molecule 1
Fig EXTRACELLULAR FLUID CYTOPLASM Plasma membrane 1 1 Reception Receptor Figure 11.6 Overview of cell signaling Signaling molecule
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Plasma membrane 1 Reception Transduction Receptor Signaling molecule 1
Fig EXTRACELLULAR FLUID CYTOPLASM Plasma membrane 1 1 Reception 2 Transduction Receptor Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway Figure 11.6 Overview of cell signaling Signaling molecule
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Plasma membrane 1 Reception Transduction Response Receptor Activation
Fig EXTRACELLULAR FLUID CYTOPLASM Plasma membrane 1 Reception 2 Transduction 3 Response Receptor Activation of cellular response Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway Figure 11.6 Overview of cell signaling Signaling molecule
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Most signal receptors are plasma membrane proteins
Reception: A signal molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape The binding between a signal molecule (ligand) and receptor is highly specific Ligand binding causes receptor to change shape and cause changes in the cell Most signal receptors are plasma membrane proteins Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Receptors in the Plasma Membrane
Most signal molecules (ligands) bind to specific sites on receptor proteins in the plasma membrane There are two main types of membrane receptors: G protein-coupled receptors Ion channel receptors Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Signaling-molecule binding site
Fig. 11-7a Signaling-molecule binding site Figure 11.7 Membrane receptors—G protein-coupled receptors, part 1 Segment that interacts with G proteins G protein-coupled receptor
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G proteins bind to the energy-rich molecule GTP
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are plasma membrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein G proteins bind to the energy-rich molecule GTP The G protein acts as an on-off switch: If GTP is bound to the G protein, the G protein is activated © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 13
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Fig. 11-7b Plasma membrane G protein-coupled receptor Inactive enzyme
Activated receptor Signaling molecule GDP G protein (inactive) Enzyme GDP GTP CYTOPLASM 1 2 Activated enzyme Figure 11.7 Membrane receptors—G protein-coupled receptors, part 2 GTP GDP P i Cellular response 3 4
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A ligand-gated ion channel receptor acts as a gate when the receptor changes shape
When a signal molecule binds as a ligand to the receptor, the gate allows specific ions, such as Na+ or Ca2+, through a channel in the receptor Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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1 Signaling molecule (ligand) Gate closed Ions Plasma membrane
Fig. 11-7d 1 Signaling molecule (ligand) Gate closed Ions Plasma membrane Ligand-gated ion channel receptor 2 Gate open Cellular response Figure 11.7 Membrane receptors—ion channel receptors 3 Gate closed
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Intracellular Receptors
Some receptor proteins are intracellular, found in the cytosol or nucleus of target cells Small or hydrophobic chemical messengers can readily cross the membrane and activate receptors Examples of hydrophobic messengers are the steroid and thyroid hormones of animals An activated hormone-receptor complex can act as a transcription factor, turning on specific genes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Hormone (testosterone) Plasma membrane Receptor protein Hormone-
Fig Hormone (testosterone) EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Plasma membrane Receptor protein Hormone- receptor complex DNA Figure 11.8 Steroid hormone interacting with an intracellular receptor mRNA NUCLEUS New protein CYTOPLASM
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Signal transduction usually involves multiple steps
Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell Signal transduction usually involves multiple steps Multistep pathways can amplify a signal: A few molecules can produce a large cellular response Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for coordination and regulation of the cellular response Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Signal Transduction Pathways
The molecules that relay a signal from receptor to response are mostly proteins Like falling dominoes, the receptor activates another protein, which activates another, and so on, until the protein producing the response is activated At each step, the signal is transduced into a different form, usually a shape change in a protein Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation
In many pathways, the signal is transmitted by a cascade of protein phosphorylations Protein kinases transfer phosphates from ATP to protein, a process called phosphorylation Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Protein phosphatases remove the phosphates from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation
This phosphorylation and dephosphorylation system acts as a molecular switch, turning activities on and off Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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Phosphorylation cascade
Fig. 11-9 Signaling molecule Receptor Activated relay molecule Inactive protein kinase 1 Active protein kinase 1 Inactive protein kinase 2 ATP Phosphorylation cascade ADP Active protein kinase 2 P PP P i Figure 11.9 A phosphorylation cascade Inactive protein kinase 3 ATP ADP Active protein kinase 3 P PP P i Inactive protein ATP ADP P Active protein Cellular response PP P i
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Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers
The extracellular signal molecule (ligand) that binds to the receptor is a pathway’s “first messenger” Second messengers are small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion Cyclic AMP and calcium ions are common second messengers © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 24
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First messenger Adenylyl cyclase G protein GTP G protein-coupled
Fig First messenger Adenylyl cyclase G protein G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP Second messenger cAMP Figure cAMP as second messenger in a G-protein-signaling pathway Protein kinase A Cellular responses
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Response: Regulation of Transcription or Cytoplasmic Activities
Ultimately, a signal transduction pathway leads to regulation of one or more cellular activities The response may occur in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus Many signaling pathways regulate the synthesis of enzymes or other proteins, usually by turning genes on or off in the nucleus The final activated molecule in the signaling pathway may function as a transcription factor © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 26
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Growth factor Reception Receptor Phosphorylation cascade Transduction
Fig Growth factor Reception Receptor Phosphorylation cascade Transduction CYTOPLASM Inactive transcription factor Active transcription factor Figure Nuclear responses to a signal: the activation of a specific gene by a growth factor Response P DNA Gene NUCLEUS mRNA
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The Evolution of Cell Signaling
Biologists have discovered some universal mechanisms of cellular regulation, evidence of the evolutionary relatedness of all life Scientists think that signaling mechanisms first evolved in ancient prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes These mechanisms were adopted for new uses in their multicellular descendants © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 28
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