1. Section 1: DNA: The Genetic Material
The discovery that DNA is the genetic code involved many experiments.

2. Review What are the different forms of DNA we have covered so far?
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DNA: The Genetic Material

3. Vocabulary double helix nucleosome Review: nucleic acid New
DNA: The Genetic Material
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4. Chromosome Condensed form of DNA
Only Present when DNA is splitting (Mitosis!)

5. Your Chromosomes

7. Discovery of the Genetic Material
In the early 1900s, scientist began to look for the molecule involved in inheritance.
For many years, scientists struggled to determine if DNA or protein was the source of genetic information.
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DNA: The Genetic Material

8. Nucleotides
Nucleotides are the rings in the ladder of DNA

9. Macromolecule: Nucleic Acid
Nucleotides
Macromolecule: Nucleic Acid
Monomer: Nucleotides
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DNA: The Genetic Material

10. Nucleotides are the subunits of nucleic acids, and consist of…
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DNA: The Genetic Material

11. Every Nucleotide consists of a base
Base Pairs
Every Nucleotide consists of a base
The Bases pair together making base pairs or the rings of the ladder
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DNA: The Genetic Material

12. Every Nucleotide consists of a base
Base Pairs
Every Nucleotide consists of a base
Analyzed the amount of A, G, T, and C in the DNA of various species
Chargaff’s rule: C = G and T = A
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DNA: The Genetic Material

13. Car is parked in the Garage
DNA Structure 4 Square
Base-Pairing Rules
A pairs to T
C pairs to G
Apples fall of a Tree
Car is parked in the Garage
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DNA: The Genetic Material

14. DNA Structure
Now Lets Try It Out..
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DNA: The Genetic Material

15. DNA Structure The structure question
Search for the structure of DNA was lead by four scientists:
Rosalind Franklin, British chemist
Maurice Wilkins, British physicist
Francis Crick, British physicist
James Watson, American biologist
Each person at your table is going to research one of these scientists and write a paragraph about their contribution to the structure of DNA
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DNA: The Genetic Material

16. DNA Structure X-ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction techniques indicated that DNA was a double helix, or twisted ladder shape.
The double helix shape was formed by two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other.
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DNA: The Genetic Material

17. DNA Structure Watson and Crick
Using Franklin and Chargaff’s data, Watson and Crick measured the width of the helix and the spacing of the bases.
They built a model that conformed the Franklin and Chargaff’s data.
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DNA: The Genetic Material

18. DNA Structure

19. Chromosome Structure
To fit into a cell, DNA coils around a group of beadlike proteins called histones.
DNA + histones form a nucleosome, which group together into chromatin fibers, which supercoil to form a chromosome.
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DNA: The Genetic Material

20. Review Essential Questions
Which experiments led to the discovery of DNA as the genetic material?
What is the basic structure of DNA?
What is the basic structure of eukaryotic chromosomes?
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DNA: The Genetic Material

21. Section 2: Replication of DNA
DNA replicates by making a strand that is complementary to each original strand.

22. Essential Questions
What is the role of enzymes in the replication of DNA?
How does DNA replication compare in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
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Replication of DNA

23. What do these have in common?
New Vocabulary
DNA Polymerase
DNA Helicase
DNA Ligase
What do these have in common?
Replication of DNA
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24. What Stage of the cell cycle would DNA Replicate itself?
Review
What Stage of the cell cycle would DNA Replicate itself?
Replication of DNA
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25. DNA Replication
During DNA replication, parental strands of DNA separate
Produce DNA molecules that have one strand of parental DNA and one strand of new DNA.
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Replication of DNA

26. DNA Replication DNA separates and produces an identical DNA molecule
3 Steps: unwinding, pairing, and joining.
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Replication of DNA

27. DNA Replication Unwinding
DNA helicase, an enzyme, unwinds the helix, breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases
Single-stranded binding proteins keep the DNA strands separate during replication.
RNA primase adds a short segment of RNA primer, on each DNA strand.
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Replication of DNA

28. DNA Replication: Unwinding
Part 1: DNA Helicase (enzyme)
“The Scissors”
DNA helicase unwinds the helix
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Replication of DNA

29. DNA Replication Base pairing
The enzyme DNA polymerase adds appropriate nucleotides to the new DNA strand
The leading strand is built continuously, the lagging strand is built discontinuously in small segments called Okazaki fragments.
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Replication of DNA

30. DNA Replication: Base pairing
Part 2: The enzyme DNA polymerase
“The Photocopier”
Adds appropriate nucleotides to the new DNA strand from the 3’ end.
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Replication of DNA

31. DNA Replication: Joining
Part 3: DNA Ligase
“The Glue”
“Ligase  Links”
DNA ligase links the two sections.
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Replication of DNA

32. Comparing DNA Replication in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Eukaryotic DNA unwinds in multiple areas as DNA is replicated.
In prokaryotes, the circular DNA strand is opened at one origin of replication.
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Replication of DNA

33. Review Essential Questions
What is the role of enzymes in the replication of DNA?
How does DNA replication compare in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
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Replication of DNA

34. TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
DNA codes for RNA, which guides protein synthesis.

35. Essential Questions
How are the different forms of RNA involved in the transcription and translation of genes?
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

36. Vocabulary Review New New Synthesis (To Make Something) RNA
messenger RNA
ribosomal RNA
transfer RNA
New
transcription
RNA polymerase
codon
translation
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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37. Central Dogma
After the discovery of DNA’s structure, scientists turned to investigating how DNA served as a genetic code for the synthesis of proteins.
Geneticists accept that the basic mechanism for reading and expressing genes is from DNA to RNA to protein.
This is referred to as the central dogma of biology: DNA codes for RNA, which guides the synthesis of proteins.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

38. Central Dogma
RNA
RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA, but with the sugar ribose, and with uracil instead of thymine.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

39. Central Dogma
RNA
RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA, but with the sugar ribose, and with uracil instead of thymine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): long strands of RNA that are formed complementary to one strand of DNA; direct synthesis of a specific protein
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): associates with proteins to form ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA): smaller segments of RNA that transport amino acids to the ribosome
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

40. Transcription
First step of the central dogma involves the synthesis of mRNA from DNA
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

41. Transcription
The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the specific section where an mRNA will be synthesized.
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand producing mRNA.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

42. mRNA Messenger RNA (mRNA): M for Messenger
long strands of RNA that are formed complementary to one strand of DNA;
the code for forming a specific protein
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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43. The Code
Scientists hypothesized that the instructions from protein synthesis were encoded in DNA.
Experiments during the 1960s demonstrated that the DNA code was a three-base code.
The three-base code in DNA or mRNA is called a codon.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

44. Codon Codon  Code It is the code for what makes you an individual!
Three Unit code for making proteins
mRNA or DNA
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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45. The Code
Translation
After synthesis, mRNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it connects to a ribosome.
The mRNA code is read and translated into a protein through a process called translation.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

46. The Code The role of the ribosome
Ribosomes provide a site for protein synthesis.
When mRNA leaves the nucleus, the two ribosomal subunits come together to hold the mRNA in place for translation.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

47. Ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): R for Ribosome
Ribosomes make proteins!
Site of Protein Synthesis
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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48. The Code The role of the ribosome
The ribosome structure has grooves that hold serve as tRNA sites for amino acid attachment.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

49. The Code
Translation
tRNA molecules act as the interpreters of the mRNA codon sequence.
The tRNA attaches a specific amino acid
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

50. The Code
Translation
tRNA contains an anticodon, a complementary sequence to the mRNA codon.
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

51. tRNA Transfer RNA (tRNA) T for Transfer Ribosomes make proteins!
smaller segments of RNA that transport amino acids to the ribosome
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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52. Transcription RNA Polymerase Polymerase  Photocopier
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand producing mRNA.
This occurs in the nucleus
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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53. Translation Think of Translating English to Spanish
Translation is where the code is translated into proteins
mRNA moves into the cytoplasm
Where it is “read” or “translated” by tRNA
The Anticodon is the opposite of the codon
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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54. Translation Macromolecule unit Polymer (Chain)  Protein
Monomer (Link)  Amino Acid
Attached to tRNA are specific amino acids
Amino Acids form proteins when chained together
DNA, RNA, and Protein
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55. Overview

56. Review Essential Questions Vocabulary
How are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA involved in the transcription and translation of genes?
What is the role of RNA polymerase in the synthesis of messenger RNA?
How is the code of DNA translated into messenger RNA and utilized to synthesize a protein?
Vocabulary
RNA
messenger RNA
ribosomal RNA
transfer RNA
transcription
RNA polymerase
intron
exon
codon
translation
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DNA, RNA, and Protein

57. Section 4: Gene Regulation and Mutation
Gene expression is regulated by the cell, and mutations can affect this expression.

58. Essential Question
What are the various types of mutations and what affect do they have upon protein synthesis?
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

59. mutation mutagen Vocabulary Gene Regulation and Mutation
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60. Eukaryote Gene Regulation
RNA interference
RNA interference (RNAi) can stop the mRNA from translating its message.
Single-stranded small interfering RNA and protein complexes bind to mRNA and stop translation.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

61. Mutations Types of mutations
A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation.
Point mutation: involve chemical change to just one base pair
Missense substitutions: DNA codes for the wrong amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Codon for amino acid becomes a stop codon
Silent mutation: No affect
Insertion/deletion: additions/ loss of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence
Cause “frameshifts”
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

62. Point Mutations One Point is changed
(sometimes is not that big of a deal)
Chemical change to just one base pair
Silent: No Affect
Missense: Codes for wrong amino acid
Nonsense: Codes for a stop codon
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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63. Mutations Types of mutations
A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation.
Insertion/deletion: additions/ loss of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence
Cause “frameshifts”
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

64. Frame shift Mutations One Point is added or deleted
(ALWAYS REALLY BAD)
Frame shift causes the protein synthesis to be drastically altered
Gene Regulation and Mutation
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65. Add link to interactive table from page 346 (Table 3) here.
Mutations
Interactive Table
FPO
Add link to interactive table from page 346 (Table 3) here.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

66. Mutations Protein folding and stability
Even small changes in the DNA code can cause genetic disorders.
The change in one amino acid can change the sequence of the protein enough to affect both the folding and stability of the protein.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

67. Mutations Causes of mutation
Can occur spontaneously – DNA polymerase can attach the wrong nucleotide, but this is rare and usually corrected.
Certain chemicals and radiation called mutagens can damage DNA.
Chemicals can cause mispairing of base pairs, or themselves substitute for base pairs.
High-energy radiation can eject electrons from atoms within the DNA molecule, leaving behind unstable free radicals.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

68. Mutations Body-cell v. sex-cell mutation
Somatic cell mutations are not passed on to the next generation.
Mutations that occur in sex cells are passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every cell of the offspring.
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Gene Regulation and Mutation

69. Review Essential Questions What are the various types of mutations?
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Gene Regulation and Mutation