1. John Kubiatowicz (http.cs.berkeley.edu/~kubitron)
CS 152 Computer Architecture and Engineering Lecture 9 Designing a Multicycle Processor
Feb 24, 1999
John Kubiatowicz (http.cs.berkeley.edu/~kubitron)
lecture slides:
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

2. Recap: Processor Design is a Process
Bottom-up
assemble components in target technology to establish critical timing
Top-down
specify component behavior from high-level requirements
Iterative refinement
establish partial solution, expand and improve 
Instruction Set
Architecture
processor
datapath
control
Reg. File
Mux
ALU
Reg
Mem
Decoder
Sequencer
Cells
Gates
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©UCB Spring 1999

3. Recap: A Single Cycle Datapath
Instruction<31:0>
nPC_sel
Instruction
Fetch Unit Rd Rt
<21:25>
<16:20>
<11:15>
<0:15>
RegDst
Clk 1
Mux Rs Rt Rt Rs Rd
Imm16
RegWr
ALUctr 5 5 5
MemtoReg
busA
Zero
MemWr Rw Ra Rb
busW
The result of the last lecture is this single-cycle datapath.
+1 = 6 min. (X:46) 32
32 32-bit
Registers
ALU 32
busB 32
Clk 32
Mux
Mux 32
WrEn
Adr 1 1
Data In 32
Data
Memory
imm16
Extender 32 16
Clk
ALUSrc
ExtOp
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©UCB Spring 1999

4. Recap: The “Truth Table” for the Main Controlop 6
ALU
(Local)
func 3
ALUop
ALUctr
RegDst
ALUSrc :
R-type
ori lw sw
beq
jump
RegDst
ALUSrc
MemtoReg
RegWrite
MemWrite
Branch
Jump
ExtOp
ALUop (Symbolic) 1 x
“R-type” Or
Add
Subtract
xxx op
ALUop <2>
ALUop <1>
ALUop <0>
Now that we have taken care of the Local Control (ALU Control), let’s refocus our attention to the Main Controller.
The job of the Main Control is to look at the Opcode field of the instruction and generate these control signals for the datapath (RegDst, ... ExtOp) as well as the 3-bit ALUop field for the ALU Control.
Here, I have shown you the symbolic value of the ALUop field as well as the actual bit assignment.
For example here (2nd column), the R-type ALUop is encode as 100 and the Add operation (3rd column) is encoded as 000..
This is call a quote “Truth Table” unquote because if you think about it, this is like having the truth table rotates 90 degrees.
Let me show you what I mean by that.
+3 = 65 min. (Y:45)
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

5. Recap: PLA Implementation of the Main Control
op<0>
op<5> .
<0>
R-type
ori lw sw
beq
jump
RegWrite
ALUSrc
MemtoReg
MemWrite
Branch
Jump
RegDst
ExtOp
ALUop<2>
ALUop<1>
ALUop<0>
Similarly, for ALUSrc, we need to OR the ori, load, and store terms together because we need to assert the ALUSrc signals whenever we have the Ori, load, or store instructions.
The RegDst, MemtoReg, MemWrite, Branch, and Jump signals are very simple. They don’t need to OR any product terms together because each is asserted for only one instruction.
For example, RegDst is asserted ONLY for R-type instruction and MemtoReg is asserted ONLY for load instruction.
ExtOp, on the other hand, needs to be set to 1 for both the load and store instructions so the immediate field is sign extended properly.
Therefore, we need to OR the load and store terms together to form the signal ExtOp.
Finally, we have the ALUop signals.
But clever encoding of the ALUop field, we are able to keep them simple so that no OR gates is needed.
If you don’t already know, this regular structure with an array of AND gates followed by another array of OR gates is called a Programmable Logic Array, or PLA for short.
It is one of the most common ways to implement logic function and there are a lot of CAD tools available to simplify them.
+3 = 70 min. (Y:50)
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

6. Recap: Systematic Generation of Control
OPcode
Control Logic / Store
(PLA, ROM)
Decode
microinstruction
Conditions
Instruction
Control
Points
Datapath
In our single-cycle processor, each instruction is realized by exactly one control command or “microinstruction”
in general, the controller is a finite state machine
microinstruction can also control sequencing (see later)
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©UCB Spring 1999

7. The Big Picture: Where are We Now?
The Five Classic Components of a Computer
Today’s Topic: Designing the Datapath for the Multiple Clock Cycle Datapath
Processor
Input
Control
Memory
So where are in in the overall scheme of things.
Well, we just finished designing the processor’s datapath.
Now I am going to show you how to design the control for the datapath.
+1 = 7 min. (X:47)
Datapath
Output
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©UCB Spring 1999

8. Outline of Today’s Lecture
Recap: single cycle processor
VHDL versions
Faster designs
Multicycle Datapath
Performance Analysis
Multicycle Control
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©UCB Spring 1999

9. Behavioral models of Datapath Components
entity adder16 is
generic (ccOut_delay : TIME := 12 ns;
adderOut_delay: TIME := 12 ns);
port(A, B: in vlbit_1d(15 downto 0);
DOUT: out vlbit_1d(15 downto 0);
CIN: in vlbit;
COUT: out vlbit);
end adder16;
architecture behavior of adder32 is
begin
adder16_process: process(A, B, CIN)
variable tmp : vlbit_1d(18 downto 0);
variable adder_out : vlbit_1d(31 downto 0);
variable carry : vlbit;
tmp := addum (addum (A, B), CIN);
adder_out := tmp(15 downto 0);
carry :=tmp(16);
COUT <= carry after ccOut_delay;
DOUT <= adder_out after adderOut_delay;
end process;
end behavior; 16 A B
DOUT
Cin
Cout
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©UCB Spring 1999

10. Behavioral Specification of Control Logic
entity maincontrol is
port(opcode: in vlbit_1d(5 downto 0);
equal_cond: in vlbit;
extop out vlbit;
ALUsrc out vlbit;
ALUop out vlbit_1d(1 downto 0);
MEMwr out vlbit;
MemtoReg out vlbit;
RegWr out vlbit;
RegDst out vlbit;
nPC out vlbit;
end maincontrol;
architecture behavior of maincontrol is
begin
control: process(opcode,equal_cond)
constant ORIop: vlbit_ld(5 downto 0) := “001101”;
-- extop only 0 (no extend) for ORI inst
case opcode is
when ORIop => extop <= 0;
when others => extop <= 1;
end case;
end process;
end behavior;
Decode / Control-store address modeled by Case statement
Each arm drives control signals for that operation
just like the microinstruction
either can be symbolic
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©UCB Spring 1999

11. Abstract View of our single cycle processor
Main
Control op
ALU
control
fun
ALUSrc
Equal
ExtOp
MemRd
MemWr
RegDst
RegWr
MemWr
nPC_sel
ALUctr
Reg.
Wrt
Register
Fetch
ALU
Ext
Mem
Access PC
Next PC
Instruction
Fetch
Result Store
Data
Mem
looks like a FSM with PC as state
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

12. What’s wrong with our CPI=1 processor?
Arithmetic & Logical PC
Inst Memory
Reg File
ALU
mux
mux
setup
Load PC
Inst Memory
Reg File
ALU
Data Mem
mux
mux
setup
Critical Path
Store PC
Inst Memory
Reg File
ALU
Data Mem
mux
Branch PC
Inst Memory
Reg File
cmp
mux
Long Cycle Time
All instructions take as much time as the slowest
Real memory is not as nice as our idealized memory
cannot always get the job done in one (short) cycle
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©UCB Spring 1999

13. Memory Access Time
Physics => fast memories are small (large memories are slow)
question: register file vs. memory
=> Use a hierarchy of memories
Storage Array
selected word line
storage cell
address
bit line
address
decoder
sense amps
mem. bus
proc. bus
memory L2
Cache
Cache
Processor
1 cycle
2-3 cycles
cycles
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©UCB Spring 1999

14. Reducing Cycle Time
Cut combinational dependency graph and insert register / latch
Do same work in two fast cycles, rather than one slow one
May be able to short-circuit path and remove some components for some instructions!
storage element
storage element
Acyclic
Combinational
Logic
Acyclic
Combinational
Logic (A) 
storage element
Acyclic
Combinational
Logic (B)
storage element
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

15. Basic Limits on Cycle Time
Next address logic
PC <= branch ? PC + offset : PC + 4
Instruction Fetch
InstructionReg <= Mem[PC]
Register Access
A <= R[rs]
ALU operation
R <= A + B
Control
MemRd
MemWr
nPC_sel
RegDst
RegWr
MemWr
ALUSrc
ALUctr
ExtOp
Reg.
File
Operand
Fetch
Exec
Instruction
Fetch
Mem
Access PC
Next PC
Result Store
Data
Mem
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

16. Partitioning the CPI=1 Datapath
Add registers between smallest steps
Equal
MemRd
MemWr
nPC_sel
RegDst
RegWr
MemWr
ExtOp
ALUSrc
ALUctr
Reg.
File
Operand
Fetch
Exec
Instruction
Fetch
Mem
Access PC
Next PC
Result Store
Data
Mem
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

17. Example Multicycle Datapath
Ext
ALU
Reg.
File
Mem
Access
Data
Result Store
RegDst
RegWr
MemWr
MemRd S M
MemToReg
Equal
ALUctr
ALUSrc
ExtOp
nPC_sel E
Reg
File A PC IR
Next PC B
Instruction
Fetch
Operand
Fetch
Critical Path ?
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

18. Administrative Issues
Read Chapter 5
Tapes now available in 205 McLaughlin Hall
This lecture and next one slightly different from the book
Midterm next Wednesday 3/3/99:
5:30pm to 8:30pm, 277 Cory
No class on that day
Midterm reminders:
Pencil, calculator, one 8.5” x 11” (both sides) of handwritten notes
Sit in every other chair, every other row (odd row & odd seat)
Meet at LaVal’s pizza after the midterm
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

19. Recall: Step-by-step Processor Design
Step 1: ISA => Logical Register Transfers
Step 2: Components of the Datapath
Step 3: RTL + Components => Datapath
Step 4: Datapath + Logical RTs => Physical RTs
Step 5: Physical RTs => Control
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

20. Step 4: R-rtype (add, sub, . . .)
Logical Register Transfer
Physical Register Transfers
inst Logical Register Transfers
ADDU R[rd] <– R[rs] + R[rt]; PC <– PC + 4
inst Physical Register Transfers
IR <– MEM[pc]
ADDU A<– R[rs]; B <– R[rt]
S <– A + B
R[rd] <– S; PC <– PC + 4
Time E
Reg.
File
Reg
File A S
Exec PC IR
Next PC
Inst. Mem B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
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©UCB Spring 1999

21. Step 4: Logical immed Logical Register Transfer
Physical Register Transfers
inst Logical Register Transfers
ORI R[rt] <– R[rs] OR ZExt(Im16); PC <– PC + 4
inst Physical Register Transfers
IR <– MEM[pc]
ORI A<– R[rs]; B <– R[rt]
S <– A or ZExt(Im16)
R[rt] <– S; PC <– PC + 4
Time E
Reg.
File
Reg
File A S
Exec PC IR
Next PC
Inst. Mem B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
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©UCB Spring 1999

22. Step 4 : Load Logical Register Transfer Physical Register Transfers
inst Logical Register Transfers
LW R[rt] <– MEM[R[rs] + SExt(Im16)];
PC <– PC + 4
Logical Register Transfer
Physical Register Transfers
inst Physical Register Transfers
IR <– MEM[pc]
LW A<– R[rs]; B <– R[rt]
S <– A + SExt(Im16)
M <– MEM[S]
R[rd] <– M; PC <– PC + 4
Time E
Reg.
File
Reg
File A S
Exec PC IR
Next PC
Inst. Mem B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

23. Step 4 : Store Logical Register Transfer Physical Register Transfers
inst Logical Register Transfers
SW MEM[R[rs] + SExt(Im16)] <– R[rt];
PC <– PC + 4
Logical Register Transfer
Physical Register Transfers
inst Physical Register Transfers
IR <– MEM[pc]
SW A<– R[rs]; B <– R[rt]
S <– A + SExt(Im16);
MEM[S] <– B PC <– PC + 4
Time E
Reg.
File
Reg
File A S
Exec PC IR
Next PC
Inst. Mem B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
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©UCB Spring 1999

24. Step 4 : Branch Logical Register Transfer Physical Register Transfers
inst Logical Register Transfers
BEQ if R[rs] == R[rt]
then PC <= PC + SExt(Im16) || 00
else PC <= PC + 4
inst Physical Register Transfers
IR <– MEM[pc]
BEQ E<– (R[rs] == R[rt])
if E then PC <– PC else PC <– PC + SExt(Im16) || 00
Time E
Reg.
File
Reg
File S A
Exec PC IR
Next PC
Inst. Mem B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
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©UCB Spring 1999

25. Alternative datapath (book): Multiple Cycle Datapath
Miminizes Hardware: 1 memory, 1 adder
PCWr
PCWrCond
PCSrc
BrWr
Zero
IorD
MemWr
IRWr
RegDst
RegWr
ALUSelA 1
Target 32 32
Mux PC
Mux 1 32
Zero Rs
Mux 1 Ra 32
RAdr 5 32 Rt Rb
busA 32 32
Ideal
Memory
ALU
Putting it all together, here it is: the multiple cycle datapath we set out to built.
+1 = 47 min. (Y:47)
Instruction Reg 5
Reg File 32
ALU Out
Mux 1 Rt 4 Rw 32
WrAdr 32 32 32 Rd 1
Din
Dout
busW
busB 32 32 2
ALU
Control
Mux 1 3
<< 2
Extend
Imm 16 32
ALUOp
ExtOp
MemtoReg
ALUSelB
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©UCB Spring 1999

26. Our Control Model State specifies control points for Register Transfer
Transfer occurs upon exiting state (same falling edge)
inputs (conditions)
Next State
Logic
State X
Register Transfer
Control Points
Control State
Depends on Input
Output Logic
outputs (control points)
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

27. Step 4 => Control Specification for multicycle proc
“instruction fetch”
IR <= MEM[PC]
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
“decode / operand fetch” LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
Memory
Write-back
S <= A fun B
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
PC <=
Next(PC,Equal)
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
PC <= PC + 4
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
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©UCB Spring 1999

28. Traditional FSM Controller
next
state
state op
cond
control points
Truth Table
next
State
control points 11
Equal 6
State 4 op
2/24/99
datapath State
©UCB Spring 1999

29. Step 5: datapath + state diagram control
Translate RTs into control points
Assign states
Then go build the controller
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

30. Mapping RTs to Control Points
IR <= MEM[PC]
“instruction fetch”
imem_rd, IRen
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
“decode”
Aen, Ben,
Een LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
Memory
Write-back
S <= A fun B
PC <=
Next(PC,Equal)
ALUfun, Sen
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
PC <= PC + 4
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
RegDst,
RegWr,
PCen
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

31. Assigning States “instruction fetch” IR <= MEM[PC] 0000 “decode”
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
“decode”
0001 LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
Memory
Write-back
S <= A fun B
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
PC <= Next(PC)
0100
0110
1000
1011
0011
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
PC <= PC + 4
1001
1100
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
0101
0111
1010
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©UCB Spring 1999

32. Detailed Control Specification
State Op field Eq Next IR PC Ops Exec Mem Write-Back
en sel A B Ex Sr ALU S R W M M-R Wr Dst
0000 ?????? ?
0001 BEQ x
0001 R-type x
0001 orI x
0001 LW x
0001 SW x
0011 xxxxxx
0011 xxxxxx
0100 xxxxxx x fun 1
0101 xxxxxx x
0110 xxxxxx x or 1
0111 xxxxxx x
1000 xxxxxx x add 1
1001 xxxxxx x
1010 xxxxxx x
1011 xxxxxx x add 1
1100 xxxxxx x
-all same in Moore machine
BEQ: R:
ORi:
LW:
SW:
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©UCB Spring 1999

33. Performance Evaluation
What is the average CPI?
state diagram gives CPI for each instruction type
workload gives frequency of each type
Type CPIi for type Frequency CPIi x freqIi
Arith/Logic 4 40% 1.6
Load 5 30% 1.5
Store 4 10% 0.4
branch 3 20% 0.6
Average CPI: 4.1
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©UCB Spring 1999

34. Controller Design
The state digrams that arise define the controller for an instruction set processor are highly structured
Use this structure to construct a simple “microsequencer”
Control reduces to programming this very simple device
microprogramming
sequencer
control
datapath control
microinstruction
micro-PC
sequencer
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©UCB Spring 1999

35. Example: Jump-Counteri i
0000
i+1
Map ROM
None of above: Do nothing
(for wait states)
op-code
zero
inc
load
Counter
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©UCB Spring 1999

36. Using a Jump Counter “instruction fetch” IR <= MEM[PC] 0000 inc
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
“decode”
0001
load LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
Memory
Write-back
S <= A fun B
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
PC <= Next(PC)
0100
0110
1000
1011
0011
inc
inc
inc
inc
zero
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
PC <= PC + 4
1001
1100
inc
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
zero
0101
0111
1010
zero
zero
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999
zero

37. Our Microsequencer taken datapath control Z I L Micro-PC op-code
Map ROM
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©UCB Spring 1999

38. Microprogram Control Specification
µPC Taken Next IR PC Ops Exec Mem Write-Back
en sel A B Ex Sr ALU S R W M M-R Wr Dst
0000 ? inc 1
load 1 1
zero
zero
0100 x inc fun 1
0101 x zero
0110 x inc or 1
0111 x zero
1000 x inc add 1
1001 x inc
x zero
1011 x inc add 1
1100 x zero
BEQ R:
ORi:
LW:
SW:
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

39. Mapping ROM R-type 000000 0100 BEQ 000100 0011 ori 001101 0110LW SW
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©UCB Spring 1999

40. Example: Controlling MemoryPC
addr
InstMem_rd
Instruction
Memory
IM_wait
data
Inst. Reg
IR_en
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©UCB Spring 1999

41. Controller handles non-ideal memory
“instruction fetch”
IR <= MEM[PC]
wait
~wait
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
“decode / operand fetch” LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
Memory
Write-back
PC <=
Next(PC)
S <= A fun B
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
~wait
wait
wait
~wait
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
PC <= PC + 4
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

42. Really Simple Time-State Control
instruction
fetch
IR <= MEM[PC]
wait
~wait
A <= R[rs]
B <= R[rt]
decode LW
R-type
ORi SW
BEQ
Execute
S <= A fun B
S <= A or ZX
S <= A + SX
S <= A + SX
Memory
M <= MEM[S]
MEM[S] <= B
wait
wait
R[rd] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= S
PC <= PC + 4
R[rt] <= M
PC <= PC + 4
PC <=
Next(PC)
write-back
PC <= PC + 4
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

43. Time-state Control Path
Local decode and control at each stage
Valid
IRex IR
IRwb
Inst. Mem
IRmem
WB Ctrl
Dcd Ctrl
Ex Ctrl
Mem Ctrl
Equal
Reg.
File
Reg
File A S
Exec PC
Next PC B
Mem
Access M
Data
Mem
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©UCB Spring 1999

44. “microprogrammed control”
Overview of Control
Control may be designed using one of several initial representations. The choice of sequence control, and how logic is represented, can then be determined independently; the control can then be implemented with one of several methods using a structured logic technique.
Initial Representation Finite State Diagram Microprogram
Sequencing Control Explicit Next State Microprogram counter Function + Dispatch ROMs
Logic Representation Logic Equations Truth Tables
Implementation PLA ROM Technique
“hardwired control”
“microprogrammed control”
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©UCB Spring 1999

45. Summary Disadvantages of the Single Cycle Processor Long cycle time
Cycle time is too long for all instructions except the Load
Multiple Cycle Processor:
Divide the instructions into smaller steps
Execute each step (instead of the entire instruction) in one cycle
Partition datapath into equal size chunks to minimize cycle time
~10 levels of logic between latches
Follow same 5-step method for designing “real” processor
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©UCB Spring 1999

46. Summary (cont’d) Control is specified by finite state digram
Specialize state-diagrams easily captured by microsequencer
simple increment & “branch” fields
datapath control fields
Control design reduces to Microprogramming
Control is more complicated with:
complex instruction sets
restricted datapaths (see the book)
Simple Instruction set and powerful datapath => simple control
could try to reduce hardware (see the book)
rather go for speed => many instructions at once!
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999

47. Where to get more information?
Next two lectures:
Multiple Cycle Controller: Appendix C of your text book.
Microprogramming: Section 5.5 of your text book.
D. Patterson, “Microprograming,” Scientific America, March
D. Patterson and D. Ditzel, “The Case for the Reduced Instruction Set Computer,” Computer Architecture News 8, 6 (October 15, 1980)
******* Keep the old slide: ********
So in the next town, the driver pretended to be the professor and started giving the lecture. Everything was going so well that both the audience and the real professor were impressed.
That is until someone in the audience asked a technical question.
But just when the professor was about to say “Got You.” His driver replied calmly: “Well this question is easily to answer. In fact, it is SO simple that even my driver sitting at the back can answer it.”
So if you ask me how to implement this state diagram in hardware, I will say: “It is so simple even ...
********** New Slide **********
Well all jokes aside, Professor Patterson is probably one on the most qualified person to cover the next two topics.
If you don’t already know, Professor Patterson’s PhD thesis was on microprogramming.
He also wrote a very good article on microprogramming in Scientific America.
But after spending early part of his career showing how great microprograming was, he then spend the next few years convining people what a bad idea microprogramming has become.
One of the main feature of RISC (points to the reference) is that its control is hardwired instead of microprogrammed, a big difference from all other computers at that time.
It is not uncommon to see people change their minds about something but the amazing part here is that Professor Patterson was right both times.
So I am sure you guys will learn a lot in the next two lectures. I will see you guys in a week.
+3 = 78 min. (Y:58)
2/24/99
©UCB Spring 1999