1. Lesson Overview
1.1 What Is Science?

2. THINK ABOUT IT
Where did plants and animals come from? How did I come to be?
Humans have tried to answer these questions in different ways. Some ways of explaining the world have stayed the same over time. Science, however, is always changing.

3. What Science Is and Is Not
What are the goals of science?

4. The Goals of Science
One goal of science is to provide natural explanations for events in the natural world.
Science also aims to use those explanations to understand patterns in nature and to make useful predictions about natural events.

5. Science as a Way of Knowing
Science is an organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world.
For example, researchers can use science to answer questions about how whales communicate, how far they travel, and how they are affected by environmental changes.

6. Science as a Way of Knowing
Scientists collect and organize information in an orderly way, looking for patterns and connections among events.
Scientists propose explanations that are based on evidence. Then they test those explanations with more evidence.

7. Science, Change, and Uncertainty
Despite all of our scientific knowledge, much of nature remains a mystery.
Almost every major scientific discovery raises more questions than it answers. This constant change shows that science continues to advance.

8. Science, Change, and Uncertainty
Learning about science means understanding what we know and what we don’t know.
Science rarely “proves” anything in absolute terms.

9. Science, Change, and Uncertainty
Scientists aim for the best understanding of the natural world that current methods can reveal.
Science has allowed us to build enough understanding to make useful predictions about the natural world.

10. Branches of Science...
No matter what branch of science you study, there is an organized way for research
For biology we have a very organized way we research and study. Because biology is ever- changing...

11. What Science Is and Is Not
Biology is not just a collection of never-changing facts or unchanging beliefs about the world.
Some scientific “facts” will change soon—if they haven’t changed already – and scientific ideas are open to testing, discussion, and revision.

12. Scientific Methodology: The Heart of Science
What procedures are at the core of scientific methodology?
How do we study biology?

13. Scientific Methodology: The Heart of Science
Scientific methodology involves:
observing and asking questions
making inferences and forming hypotheses
conducting controlled experiments
collecting and analyzing data
drawing conclusions

14. Observing and Asking Questions
Scientific investigations begin with observation, the act of noticing and describing events or processes in a careful, orderly way.

15. Inferring and Forming a Hypothesis
After posing questions, scientists use further observations to make inferences, or logical interpretations based on what is already known.
Inference can lead to a hypothesis, or a scientific explanation for a set of observations that can be tested in ways that support or reject it.

16. Inferring and Forming a Hypothesis
For example, researchers inferred that something limits grass growth in some places. Based on their knowledge of salt marshes, they hypothesized that marsh grass growth is limited by available nitrogen.

17. How Do You Test Your Hypothesis
When you come up with a logical hypothesis you need to figure out how to test it.
What way can you show you are correct in your thinking?
What facts will support your hypothesis?

18. Designing Controlled Experiments
Testing a scientific hypothesis often involves designing an experiment that keeps track of various factors that can change, or variables.
Examples of variables include temperature, light, time, and availability of nutrients.

19. Designing Controlled Experiments
Whenever possible, a hypothesis should be tested by an experiment in which only one variable is changed.
All other variables should be kept unchanged, or controlled.
This type of experiment is called a controlled experiment.

20. Designing Controlled Experiments
Test one hypothesis
Only one variable is changed.
All other variables should be kept unchanged, or controlled.

21. Controlling Variables
WHY CONTROLLED???
It is important to control variables because if several variables are changed in the experiment, researchers can’t easily tell which variable is responsible for any results they observe.

22. Controlling Variables
The variable that is deliberately changed is called the independent variable (also called the manipulated variable).
The variable that is observed and that changes in response to the independent variable is called the dependent variable (also called the responding variable).

23. Control and Experimental Groups
Typically, an experiment is divided into control and experimental groups.
A control group is exposed to the same conditions as the experimental group except for one independent variable.
Scientists set up several sets of control and experimental groups to try to reproduce or replicate their observations.

24. Designing Controlled Experiments
For example from our marsh grass experiment:
The researchers selected similar plots of marsh grass. All plots had similar (controlled variables):
plant density, soil type, input of freshwater, and height above average tide level.
The plots were divided into control and experimental groups.

25. Designing Controlled Experiments
The researchers added nitrogen fertilizer (the independent variable) to the experimental plots. They then observed the growth of marsh grass (the dependent variable) in both experimental and control plots.

26. Collecting and Analyzing Data
Scientists record experimental observations, gathering information called data. There are two main types of data: quantitative data and qualitative data.

27. Collecting and Analyzing Data
Quantitative data are numbers obtained by counting or measuring. In the marsh grass experiment, it could include the number of plants per plot, plant sizes, and growth rates.

28. Collecting and Analyzing Data
Qualitative data are descriptive and involve characteristics that cannot usually be counted. In the marsh grass experiment, it might include notes about foreign objects in the plots, or whether the grass was growing upright or sideways.

29. Research Tools
Scientists choose appropriate tools for collecting and analyzing data.
Tools include simple devices such as metersticks, sophisticated equipment such as machines that measure nitrogen content, and charts and graphs that help scientists organize their data.

30. Research Tools
This graph shows how grass height changed over time.

31. Research Tools In the past, data were recorded by hand.
Today, researchers typically enter data into computers, which make organizing and analyzing data easier.
Many computer programs help to design graphs and charts

32. Sources of Error
But biologist are human, so always a chance for error….human error.
Researchers must be careful to avoid errors in data collection and analysis. Tools used to measure the size and weight of marsh grasses, for example, have limited accuracy.

33. Sources of Error Therefore….
Data analysis and sample size must be chosen carefully.
The larger the sample size, the more reliably researchers can analyze variation and evaluate differences between experimental and control groups.

34. Drawing Conclusions
Scientists use experimental data as evidence to support, refute, or revise the hypothesis being tested, and to draw a valid conclusion.

35. Analysis showed that marsh grasses grew taller than controls by adding nitrogen. :) Hypothesis supported

36. Drawing Conclusions
New data may indicate that the researchers have the right general idea but are wrong about a few particulars.
In that case, the original hypothesis is reevaluated and revised; new predictions are made, and new experiments are designed.
Hypotheses may have to be revised and experiments redone several times before a final hypothesis is supported and conclusions can be drawn.

37. Drawing Conclusions
Hypotheses may have to be revised and experiments redone several times before a final hypothesis is supported and conclusions can be drawn.
And in biology that’s okay!!

38. Drawing Conclusions

39. When Experiments Are Not Possible
It is not always possible to test a hypothesis with an experiment.
In some of these cases, researchers devise hypotheses that can be tested by observations.

40. When Experiments Are Not Possible
Animal behavior researchers, for example, might want to learn how animal groups interact in the wild by making field observations that disturb the animals as little as possible.
Researchers analyze data from these observations and devise hypotheses that can be tested in different ways.

41. When Experiments Are Not Possible
Sometimes, ethics prevents certain types of experiments—especially on human subjects.

42. When Experiments Are Not Possible
For example, medical researchers who suspect that a chemical causes cancer, for example, would search for volunteers who have already been exposed to the chemical and compare them to people who have not been exposed to the chemical.

43. When Experiments Are Not Possible
The researchers still try to control as many variables as possible, and might exclude volunteers who have serious health problems or known genetic conditions.
Medical researchers always try to study large groups of subjects so that individual genetic differences do not produce misleading results.

44. Communicating Results: Reviewing and Sharing Ideas
Why is peer review important?
Publishing peer-reviewed articles in scientific journals allows researchers to share ideas and to test and evaluate each other’s work.

45. Peer Review
Scientists share their findings with the scientific community by publishing articles that have undergone peer review.
In peer review, scientific papers are reviewed by anonymous, independent experts.

46. Peer Review
Reviewers read them looking for oversights, unfair influences, fraud, or mistakes in techniques or reasoning. They provide expert assessment of the work to ensure that the highest standards of quality are met.

47. Peer Review

48. Sharing Knowledge and New Ideas
Once research has been published, it may spark new questions. Each logical and important question leads to new hypotheses that must be independently confirmed by controlled experiments.
For example, the findings that growth of salt marsh grasses is limited by available nitrogen suggests that nitrogen might be a limiting nutrient for mangroves and other plants in similar habitats.

49. Scientific Theories What is a scientific theory?
In science, the word theory applies to a well- tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypotheses and that enables scientists to make accurate predictions about new situations.

50. Scientific Theories
A useful theory that has been thoroughly tested and supported by many lines of evidence may become the dominant view among the majority of scientists.
But remember….

51. Scientific Theories No theory is considered absolute truth.
Science is always changing; as new evidence is uncovered, a theory may be revised or replaced by a more useful explanation.

52. Understanding and Using Science
Understanding biology will help you realize that we humans can predict the consequences of our actions and take an active role in directing our future and that of our planet.