1. Lesson Overview
16.4 Evidence of Evolution

2. Biogeography
How does the geographic distribution of species today relate to their evolutionary history?

3. Biogeography
How does the geographic distribution of species today relate to their evolutionary history?
Patterns in the distribution of living and fossil species tell us how modern organisms evolved from their ancestors.

4. Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of where organisms live now and where they and their ancestors lived in the past.
Two biogeographical patterns are significant to Darwin’s theory.
The first is a pattern in which closely related species differentiate in slightly different climates.
The second is a pattern in which very distantly related species develop similarities in similar environments.

5. The Age of Earth and Fossils
How do fossils help to document the descent of modern species from ancient ancestors?

6. The Age of Earth and Fossils
How do fossils help to document the descent of modern species from ancient ancestors?
Many recently discovered fossils form series that trace the evolution of modern species from extinct ancestors.

7. The Age of Earth
Evolution takes a long time. If life has evolved, then Earth must be very old.
Hutton and Lyell argued that Earth was indeed very old, but technology in their day couldn’t determine just how old.
Geologists now use radioactivity to establish the age of certain rocks and fossils. Radioactive dating indicates that Earth is about 4.5 billion years old—plenty of time for evolution by natural selection to take place.

8. Recent Fossil Finds
One recently discovered fossil series documents the evolution of whales from ancient land mammals. Several reconstructions based on fossil evidence are shown on the following slides. The exceptions to the reconstructions are the modern Mysticete and Odontocete.

9. Recent Fossil Finds

10. Comparing Anatomy and Embryology
What do homologous structures and similarities in embryonic development suggest about the process of evolutionary change?

11. Comparing Anatomy and Embryology
What do homologous structures and similarities in embryonic development suggest about the process of evolutionary change?
Evolutionary theory explains the existence of homologous structures adapted to different purposes as the result of descent with modification from a common ancestor.

12. Comparing Anatomy and Embryology
For example, the front limbs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals contain the same basic bones.

13. Homologous Structures
Darwin proposed that animals with similar structures evolved from a common ancestor with a basic version of that structure.
Structures that are shared by related species and that have been inherited from a common ancestor are called homologous structures.
Biologists test whether structures are homologous by studying anatomical details, the way structures develop in embryos, and the pattern in which they appeared over evolutionary history.

14. Analogous Structures
The clue to common descent is common structure, not common function. A bird’s wing and a horse’s front limb have different functions but similar structures.
Body parts that share a common function, but not structure, are called analogous structures. The wing of a bee and the wing of a bird are analogous structures.

15. Vestigial Structures
Not all homologous structures have important functions.
Vestigial structures are inherited from ancestors, but have lost much or all of their original function due to different selection pressures acting on the descendant.
The hipbones of bottlenose dolphins are vestigial structures. In their ancestors, hipbones played a role in terrestrial locomotion. However, as the dolphin lineage adapted to life at sea, this function was lost.

16. Embryology
Researchers noticed a long time ago that the early developmental stages of many animals with backbones (called vertebrates) look very similar.
Recent observations make clear that the same groups of embryonic cells develop in the same order and in similar patterns to produce many homologous tissues and organs in vertebrates.
Similar patterns of embryological development provide further evidence that organisms have descended from a common ancestor.

17. Embryology
Evolutionary theory offers the most logical explanation for these similarities in patterns of development.
Similar patterns of embryological development provide further evidence that organisms have descended from a common ancestor.

18. Genetics and Molecular Biology
How can molecular biology be used to trace the process of evolution?

19. Genetics and Molecular Biology
How can molecular biology be used to trace the process of evolution?
At the molecular level, the universal genetic code and homologous molecules provide evidence of common descent.

20. Life’s Common Genetic Code
This genetic code is nearly identical in almost all organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, plants, fungi, and animals.

21. Life’s Common Genetic Code
This compares a small portion of the DNA for the same gene in three animals—a mouse, a whale, and a chicken.

22. Life’s Common Genetic Code
This similarity in genetic code is powerful evidence that all organisms evolved from common ancestors.

23. Homologous Molecules
In Darwin’s day, biologists could only study similarities and differences in structures they could see. But physical body structures can’t be used to compare mice with yeasts or bacteria.
Today, we know that homology is not limited to physical structures.
Homologous proteins share extensive structural and chemical similarities.
One homologous protein is cytochrome c, which functions in cellular respiration. Remarkably similar versions of cytochrome c are found in almost all living cells, from cells in baker’s yeast to cells in humans.

24. Homologous Molecules
Genes can be homologous, too. One example is a set of genes that determine the identities of body parts.
Know as Hox genes, they help to determine the head to tail axis in embryonic development.
In vertebrates, sets of homologous Hox genes direct the growth of front and hind limbs.
Small changes in these genes can produce dramatic changes in the structures they control.