1. It’s almost like they’re trying to be the bad guy.
Iran
It’s almost like they’re trying to be the bad guy.

2. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Existed sovereignly early on as the Achemenian Empire (called Persia by rival Greece)
Centralized military leadership
Set the stage for “West vs. East” themes in history
Alexander the Great conquered both, but left Persian political structure in place
Kings acceded to the throne based on heredity
State sponsored religion - Zoroastrianism

3. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Importance of Shiism
Invaded by Arabs regularly from 7th through 16th centuries, bringing Islam to the region
Religion became the “glue” holding Persians together
Shia/Sunni Divide (7th Century)
Muhammad died without designating an heir
Sunnis wanted the caliph to succeed (Caliphs were heads of the designated leadership, called the Sunni)
Shiites wanted a hereditary heir of Muhammad to succeed (Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali)
Ali was killed, Shia became a minority, believing heirs of Ali (imams) were the true carriers of Islam
12th Decendent disappeared as a child, leading to the legend of a “Hidden Imam” – will return to establish Islamic rule again

4. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Modern Sources of Legitimacy
Pahlavi Shahs of the 20th Century ( )
Attempted secularization of the state
Opposed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Revolution of 1979
Led by Khomeini to reestablish Islamic state
Constitution of 1979, plus amendments of 1989
Complex mixture of theocracy and democracy
Affirms Qur’an, Muhammad, the Twelve Imams, and the Hidden Imam in the Preamble
Qom and Jurist Guardianship
Qom – city south of Tehran where seminary clerics are based
Jurist Guardianship – idea that clergy has responsibility for all of Shia society

5. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Supreme Leader of Iran,

6. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

7. Muhammad Khatami
President of Iran,

8. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
President of Iran,

9. Hassan Rouhani President of Iran 2013 - Present

10. Political Culture Authoritarian, but not totalitarian
Union of political and religious authority
Shiism and Sharia as central components of the law
The sharia – Islamic law as expounded in the Koran
Escape from European colonization (no real impact on Iran)
Geographic limitations – mostly unusable for agriculture, causing early Persians to conquer other lands
Influence of ancient Persia

11. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Safavids ( )
Safavid empire converted 90% of their subjects to Shiism
Respected/tolerated other monotheistic “People of the Book”: Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians
Lacked economic resources to exert full control, relied on local rulers to keep order
Most clerics were outside the reach of the government, state fragmented by 1722

12. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Qajars ( )
Turks who conquered Persia long after an Afghan invasion ended the Safavid empire
Moved capital to Tehran, kept Shiism as state religion
Could NOT claim to be descendents of the Twelve Imams (as Safavids had), leading to growth in separation of government and religion
Sold oil drilling rights to many Western countries

13. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Qajars ( )
Constitutional Revolution of
Shah had led the country into massive debt, but lived lavishly
Business owners and bankers feared Shah would forgo paying domestic debts to repay European loans
They demanded for a written Constitution, encouraged by the British who didn’t think the Shah could put down a rebellion

14. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Qajars ( )
Constitution of 1906
Direct elections of a legislature (Majles)
Bill of Rights guaranteeing equality under the law, criminal protections, freedom of expression
Shiism still the state religion, with a Guardian Council of clerics that could veto any legislation of the Majles

15. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Pahlavis ( )
Colonel Reza Khan carried out a coup against the state in 1921, becoming shah in 1925
Reduced power of Majles
Turned over power to son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941
Opposed by communist Tudeh (masses) Party and National Front led by Muhammad Mosaddeq
Iran becomes a rentier state, collecting payments from Western countries for oil drilling rights
Importance: government doesn’t need to collect taxes to fund activities, thus, doesn’t need the people!

16. Colonel Reza Khan, a.k.a. Reza Shah Pahlavi

17. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi

18. Mohammad Mossadeq
Prime Minister of Iran,

19. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
The Pahlavis ( )
White Revolution (1963)
Attempt to remove “red” (communist) influences
Land reform – government buys unused land, sells to small farmers at low prices
Extended voting rights to women, restricted polygamy, allowed women to work outside the home
The Resurgence Party and “Pahlavi Foundation” (1970s)
Shah disbanded other parties, declared Iran a one-party state
Replaced the Islamic calendar, and called himself “Guide to the New Great Civilization” and “Light of the Aryans”
Creates a religious corps to teach peasants “true Islam”

20. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979-Present)
Religiously motivated, results in a theocratic state
Ingredients:
Shah behaving as a totalitarian, not just authoritarian
Shah secularized Iran too quickly against the will of the clergy
Ties to the West offended nationalists and clergy
Charismatic leader – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Quick drop in oil prices combined with high inflation in Iran

21. Political and Economic Change
4 Eras:
Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979-Present)
National referendum in April 1979 voted to end the monarchy and establish an Islamic Republic
Assembly of Religious Experts (clerics directly elected by the people) chosen to draft a Constitution
Approved in a plebiscite by 99% of voters
Cultural Revolution – purify the country of secular and Western values and behaviors
Removed many professors from universities
Executions in the name of “revolutionary justice”

22. The Shah asked Iraq to deport Khomeini, so they sent him to Paris
The Shah asked Iraq to deport Khomeini, so they sent him to Paris. Khomeini now had better access to the media and telecommunications.

23. 2 million demonstrators strike and take to the streets of Tehran in response to the Shah’s ban on public demonstrations in 1978.

24. Khomeini returns from exile

25. Political and Economic Change
One Theory on the Cause of the Revolution – Theory of Rising Expectations
As people’s standard of living rises, their expectation for future growth rises as well
The gap between their expectations and reality can be tolerable, but become “intolerable” if actual standard of living drops

27. Political and Economic Change
Post-Khomeini (1989-Present)
Cementing of the powers of the clerics
Rebound in oil prices, improved economy (government aid for housing and medical clinics)
Invasion of Iraq in , people rallied behind government
Khomeini’s charismatic authority
Succession of Ali Khamenei
Lacked charisma, academic credentials of Khomeini
Drop in world oil prices
Subsequent decades of conflict between reformists and conservatives

28. Citizens, Society, and the State
Cleavages
Religion
Almost 90% Shia, 10% Sunni, around 1% either Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian, or Baha’I
Constitution of 1979 recognizes and respects the rights of religious minorities, though Jews, Christians, and Baha’i are often persecuted
Constitution does not mention Sunnis

29. Citizens, Society, and the State
Cleavages
Ethnicity
51% Persian, speaking Persian (Farsi)
24% Azeri, concentrated in the Northwest
Shiia, but don’t speak Farsi (Khamenei is Azeri)
Fear of Iranian government that they may want to unite with Azerbaijan
7% Kurdish, 3% Arab (both Sunnis)

30. Arab
Persian
Azeri
Kurdish

31. Citizens, Society, and the State
Cleavages
Social class
Peasantry and lower middle class support the regime, having benefited from its programs
Middle and upper class people tend to be secularized and critical of the clerics
Haven’t done well economically since the Revolution
Reformers vs. Conservatives
Reformers want secularization, democracy, open relations with the West
Conservatives want to preserve the clerical and sharia regime

32. Civil Society
Pre-Revolution – people were dissatisfied with governments intrusion into private lives in civil society
Post-Revolution – hasn’t changed much!
Many professionals leave the country
Exception – “Tehran Spring” under president Khatami ( )
Cautious political liberalization, loosening of speech and press rights, friendlier stance to West
Reversed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Iran has a VERY young population!
Regime encouraged large families in its first years
Goods were rationed per capita, making it better to have more children
60% under 30

33. Political Participation
Post 1979 – many newspapers, labor unions, private organizations, and political parties forced to close
Protests and Demonstrations
Banned, but still occur regularly in cities and universities
Most economic in nature, but 2009 election led to calls for democratization

34. Political Participation
Women and the Political System
“The Veil” – required in public by regime, symbolizes oppression to westerners, but not so much to Iranian women
20th century Iranian women have had better access to education than other Mid-East countries
About half of university students are women
Law towards women is “equality with difference”
sharia is interpreted to favor males in divorce and custody disputes
cannot leave the country without the consent of male relatives
Women are about 33% of the labor force
Women rarely get elected to the Majles (4.1%)

35. Linkage Institutions Political Parties
Constitution allows them, but government didn’t until 1997
Highly unstable party system, changes around personalities, but in the last election:
Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran – Ahmadinejad’s conservative, populist party
Green Movement (not an official political party) – formed around Mir-Hossein Mousavi (was an independent candidate) in the aftermath of the perceived stolen election
Many other minor competitors in presidential and Majles elections

36. Mir-Hossein Mousavi
Candidate for President, 2009
Leader of the Green Movement
Prime Minister of Iran,

37. Muhammad Khatami
President,
Leader of Iranian Militant Clerics Society, withdrew from race to back Mousavi

38. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
President of Iran,
Chairman of the Expediency Council, 1988-Present
Chairman of the Assembly of Experts, 2007-Present
Pragmatic conservative, tense relationship with Ahmadinejad

39. Linkage Institutions Elections Interest Groups
Suffrage for all over 18 to vote for president, Majles, and Assembly of Experts
Majles is a first-past-the-post plurality system, no PR
Presidential is a 2-round majority system
Interest Groups
Tough to draw the line between these and parties in Iran
Labor is organized, but business is not, given that government controls 65-80% of the economy

40. Linkage Institutions Mass Media
1981 Majles passed a law making it a crime to use “pen and speech” against the government
Restrictions lifted from time to time, but reimposed when demonstrations pose a problem to the regime
Government owns radio and television broadcasting, but newspapers and magazines are typically privately owned

41. State Institutions
Political system fuses theocracy and democracy in a unitary state
Theocratic Institutions:
Supreme Leader
Guardian Council
Expediency Council
Democratic Institutions:
Assembly of Religious Experts
Majles
President

42. State Institutions Supreme Leader
Chosen by Assembly of Religious Experts (only tested once, in 1989)
The faqih – leading Islamic jurist to interpret religious documents and the sharia
Powers
Eliminate presidential candidates
Dismissal of the president
Commander of the armed forces
Declares war and peace
Appoints many administrators and judges
Nominates up to 6 members to Guardian Council
Appoints heads of other agencies, like broadcasters
Head of State with real power

43. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

44. State Institutions Guardian Council 12 male clerics
6 appointed by Supreme Leader
6 nominated by Chief Judge, approved by Majles
Review bills passed by Majles to ensure they comply with the sharia
May disqualify candidates for election as part of their jurist guardianship (along with Supreme Leader)

45. State Institutions Assembly of Religious Experts
86 men elected by the people every 4 years
Use to only allow clerics, but requirement eliminated in 1998
Candidates may still be rejected by Guardian Council
With Supreme Leader and Guardian Council, in charge of constitutional interpretation
Choose a successor to the Supreme Leader, and may remove him as well
Chairman is currently Hashemi Rafsanjani

46. State Institutions Expediency Council
Created by Khomeini to referee disputes between Guardian Council and Majles
Started smaller, has grown to 32 members
Has gained the power to originate legislation
Collection of the most powerful men in Iran, including:
High ranking clerics
President
Chief Judge
Speaker of Majles
Members of the Guardian Council
Also headed by Rafsanjani

47. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
President of Iran,
Chairman of the Expediency Council, 1988-Present
Chairman of the Assembly of Experts, 2007-Present
Pragmatic conservative, tense relationship with Ahmadinejad

48. State Institutions President and Cabinet Head of government
Elected every 4 years by voters, may serve 2 terms
Constitution requires him to be a “pious Shiite”
Powers
Devise the budget
“Supervise” economic matters
Propose legislation to the Majles
Executing the law/policies
Signs treaties and laws
Chairs the National Security Council
Appoints cabinet and other provincial officials

49. State Institutions Bureaucracy
Expanded rapidly to create places for college graduates to work (size doubled since 1979)
Examples of new ministries:
Culture and Islamic Guidance – censures the media
Intelligence – chief security organization
Heavy Industry – manages nationalized factories
Reconstruction – spreads Islam to the countryside
Dominated by clergy and their relatives

50. State Institutions Semi-Public Institutions (Foundations)
“Autonomous”, but run by appointees of the Supreme Leader
Tax exempt, though they bring in HUGE amounts of money
Own property confiscated from pre-1979 elite
Use wealth to do “charitable work” to build regime support

51. State Institutions Legislature – The Majles
Unicameral, though the Assembly of Religious Experts seems to function as an upper house
290 seats directly elected by the people in SMD plurality elections
Powers
Pass laws with approval of Guardian Council
Interpret legislation, without contradiction of judiciary
Approve 6 members to Guardian Council nominated by Chief Judge
Investigate misconduct of bureaucracy and judiciary
Remove cabinet officials (not the president)
Approve the budget, cabinet, treaties, and loans
After reformist success in 2000 election, Guardian Council banned most reformists from running in 2004

53. State Institutions Judiciary Types of law in Iran
Sharia – Islamic law, supersedes all other laws, chiefly interpreted by Supreme Leader
Qanun – No sacred basis, just statutes made by legislative bodies (Majles, for example)
Must not contradict sharia
No judicial review – legal authority is not in the constitution, but in interpretation of sharia
Appeals system is in place, but Khomeini argued spirit of sharia was for local judges to make final decisions in most cases
Sharia dictates harsh punishments (death) for a wide variety of “crimes”, but Islamic Republic has softened the use of these over the years

54. State Institutions Military
Revolutionary Guard – created by Khomeini to counter the Shah’s existing regular army, navy, and air force
Strong political influence, increasingly independent
Army defends the borders, Revolutionary Guard protects the Islamic Republic
All commanded by Supreme Leader, who appoints top commanders
8th largest military in the world

55. Other “Stuff” You Should Know
Divide in Qom – seminary city where Khomeini began denouncing Shah
Many clerics believe the union of politics and religion should not occur until the appearance of the 12th Imam (and thus oppose the theocracy)
“Economics is for donkeys” – quote by Khomeini dismissing the importance of the economy for policymakers