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Warm Up Net Ionic Equation
A solution of ammonia is added to a dilute solution of acetic acid
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Unit 1: Chemistry Fundamentals
Zumdahl: Chapter 2
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Atomic Theory Foundations
Law of Conservation of Mass – mass is neither created or destroyed during a chemical or physical change Law of Definite Proportions – a compound contains the same proportions by mass regardless of the size of the sample Example: NaCl – always 39.34% Na & 60.66% Cl
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Atomic Theory Foundations
Law of Multiple Proportions – if two or more different compounds are composed of the same two elements, then the ratio of the masses of the second element combined with a certain mass of the first element is always a ratio of small whole numbers Example CO2 and CO
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Dalton’s Atomic theory
All matter is composed of atoms Atoms of an element have the same size, mass and properties; atoms of a different element have different sizes, masses and properties Atoms cannot be divided, created or destroyed Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios Chemical reactions combine, separate, or rearrange atoms
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Modern Atomic Theory Atoms can be divided
Atoms of the same element can have different masses All else remains the same
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Comparing Theories Dalton See notes Solid sphere Thompson
Plum pudding model Electrons scattered thru positively charged cloud Rutherford Concept of the nucleus Positively charged
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Isotopes II.A.2(c) – compare the characteristics of isotopes of the same element IV.B.2(d) – calculate the weighted average atomic mass of an element from isotopic abundance, given the mass of each contributor
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Def: atoms of the same element that have different masses
Isotopes Def: atoms of the same element that have different masses
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protium – 1 proton in nucleus deuterium – 1 proton; 1 neutron
Example: hydrogen protium – 1 proton in nucleus deuterium – 1 proton; 1 neutron tritium – 1 proton; 2 neutrons *Nuclide – general term for any isotope
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Writing Isotopes Example – Uranium 235
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Average Mass Number Def: the weighted average of the atomic masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element Like calculating a “weighted” grade (decimal % of each isotope x mass of that isotope)
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Sample Calculation
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The Periodic Table IV.B.2(c) – use the periodic table to determine the atomic number, atomic mass, mass number, and number of protons, electrons and neutrons in isotopes of elements
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Reading the Periodic Table
Atomic Number # of protons in nucleus Element Symbol Element Name Atomic Weight Electron Configuration 3 Li Lithium 6.941 [He]2s1
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Calculating Protons, Electrons & Neutrons
IV.B.2(c) – use the periodic table to determine the atomic number, atomic mass, mass number, and number of protons, electrons and neutrons in isotopes of elements
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Mass Number Def: the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope mass # - atomic # = # of neutrons Example – oxygen Mass # (16) – atomic # (8) = # of neutrons (8)
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Formulas II.A.2(a) – use the IUPAC symbols of the most commonly referenced elements III.A.1(a) – distinguish between chemical symbols, empirical formulas, molecular formulas and structural formulas III.A.1(b) – interpret the information conveyed by chemical formulas for numbers of atoms of each element represented III.A.(d) – provide the interconversion of molecular formulas, structural formulas, and names, including common binary and ternary acids
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Chemical Symbols One or two letter symbol used to represent an element
H – hydrogen Ca – Calcium Sn – tin (stannum) Cl – chlorine
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Molecular Formulas Represent the elements in a compound
Subscripts tell how many atoms of that element are in a compound Example – sulfuric acid H2SO4 2 – hydrogen 1 – sulfur 4 – oxygen
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Empirical Formulas consists of the symbols for the elements combined in a compound, with subscripts showing the smallest whole-number ratio of the different atoms in the compound
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Structural Formulas ethane ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cholesterol
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Counting by Weighing
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Percent Composition III.A.1(c) – calculate the percent composition of a substance given its formula or masses of each component element in a sample
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% Composition Sample Problems
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NOMENCLATURE Zumdahl – Ch 2
III.A.1(d) - provide the interconversion of molecular formulas, structural formulas, and names, including common binary and ternary acids NOMENCLATURE
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Oxidation Numbers Pure elements in their standard states have an oxidation number of zero Fluorine has an oxidation of -1 in all compounds Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 except when in a peroxide when its oxidation number is -1 Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 except when bonded to a metal The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is zero The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion These rules apply to covalently bonded atoms
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Oxidation Numbers Cont’d
Group 1 = +1 Group 2 = +2 Transition Metals = varies Group 15 = varies (-3 usually) Group 16 = varies (-2 usually) Group 17 = varies (-1 usually)
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General Rules for Naming Chemical Compounds
Cation (pronounced cat-ion) is named first has a positive charge/oxidation number name does NOT change Anion (pronounced an-ion) is named second has a negative charge/oxidation number ending is “-ide”
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Binary Ionic Compounds Type I
Metal is from Group 1 or 2 charges/oxidation numbers = 0 Examples: NaCl – Na+1 Cl-1 = sodium chloride KF – K+1 F-1 = potassium fluoride CaBr2 – Ca+2 Br-1 = calcium bromide Li2O – Li+1 O-2 = lithium oxide
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Binary Ionic Compounds Type II
Metal is a transition metal Many metals form more than one type of positive ion Iron: Fe2+ or Fe3+ Copper: Cu1+ or Cu2+ Lead: Pb2+ or Pb4+ Tin: Sn2+ or Sn4+ Roman numeral indicates charge on the metal ion (NOT the number of atoms) Look at 2nd element to determine charge on transition metal
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Examples of Type II EX: FeCl2 – iron(II) chloride FeCl3 – iron(III) chloride CuO – copper(II) oxide Cu2O – copper(I) oxide SnF4 – tin(IV) fluoride SnO2 – tin(IV) oxide SnO – tin(II) oxide **NOTE: sum of oxidation numbers = 0
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Exceptions to the Rule Aluminum – always Al3+ Cadmium – always Cd2+ Zinc – always Zn2+ Silver – always Ag+ No Roman numerals needed
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Binary Covalent Compounds or Binary Molecular Compounds
Formed between two non-metals first element name doesn’t change Second element ends with “-ide” Don’t use “mono-” on first name Use prefixes to indicate number of atoms of element
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Prefixes Mono– 1 Di– 2 Tri- 3 Tetra- 4 Penta- 5 Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7 Octa- 8 Nona- 9 Deca- 10 Undeca – 11 Dodeca - 12
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Examples of Binary Covalent Compounds
CO – carbon monoxide CO2 – carbon dioxide CCl4 – carbon tetrachloride SiO2 – silicon dioxide SeBr2 – selenium dibromide BF3 – boron trifluoride P2O4 – diphosphorous tetroxide P4O10 – tetraphosphorous decoxide
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Polyatomic Ions Group of atoms with a shared charge
III.A.1(c) – use the names, formulas, and charges of commonly referenced polyatomic ionsl
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Polyatomic Rule #1 Common form ends with –ate
Example: nitrate, chlorate, sulfate
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Polyatomic Rule #2 If oxygen decreases by one, O-1, changes ending to “-ite” Example: nitrite, chlorite, sulfite
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Polyatomic Rule #3 If oxygen decreases by two, O-2, add prefix “hypo-”
Keep ending “-ite” Example: hypochlorite
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Polyatomic Rule #4 If oxygen increases by one, O+1, add prefix “per-”
Keep ending “-ate” Examples: perchlorate, permanganate
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Polyatomic Ions Chlorate Bromate Iodate Nitrate Permanganate Carbonate
Silicate Selenate Phosphate Arsenate ClO3- BrO3- IO3- NO3- MnO4- CO32- SiO32- SeO32- PO43- AsO43-
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More Polyatomic Ions Acetate Hydroxide Bicarbonate Bisulfate Ammonium
Thiocyanate Thiosulfate Oxalate Chromate Dichromate C2H3O2- OH- HCO3- HSO4- NH4+ SCN- S2O32- C2O42- CrO42- Cr2O72-
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Binary Acids III.A.1(d) - provide the interconversion of molecular formulas, structural formulas, and names, including common binary and ternary acids
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Binary Acids Hydrogen takes place of metal ion
Use prefix hydro- in place of hydrogen Use suffix -ic on the root Examples – HCl – hydrochloric acid HF – hydroflouric acid H2S – hydrosulfuric acid
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Oxyacids III.A.1(d) - provide the interconversion of molecular formulas, structural formulas, and names, including common binary and ternary acids
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Oxyacids contain hydrogen, a non-metal, and oxygen
usually contain 3 or 4 oxygen atoms add suffix -ic to the stem Examples – HBrO3 – bromic acid H2CO3 – carbonic acid HClO3 – chloric acid HNO3 – nitric acid H3PO4 – phosphoric acid H2SO4 – sulfuric acid
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Oxyacids Cont’d Common name ends with -ate
One extra oxygen add per- to stem name Example – HClO3 – chloric acid HClO4 – perchloric acid One less oxygen change -ic ending to -ous HClO2 – chlorous acid
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Oxyacids cont’d Two fewer oxygens change -ic ending to -ous AND add prefix hypo- Examples - HClO3 – chloric acid HClO – hypochlorous acid
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