1. Antiviral Drugs
Chapter 45

2. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. They lack both a cell wall and a cell membrane, and they do not carry out metabolic processes. Viruses use much of the host’s metabolic machinery, and few drugs are selective enough to prevent viral replication without injury to the infected host cells.

3. TREATMENT OF RESPIRATORY VIRAL INFECTIONS
Viral respiratory tract infections for which treatments exist include influenza A and B and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). [Note: Immunization against influenza A is the preferred approach. However, antiviral agents are used when patients are allergic to the vaccine or outbreaks occur.]

4. A. Neuraminidase inhibitors The neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir [os-el-TAM-i-veer] and zanamivir [za-NA-mi-veer] are effective against both type A and type B influenza viruses. They do not interfere with the immune response to influenza vaccine.

5. Administered prior to exposure, neuraminidase inhibitors prevent infection and, when administered within 24 to 48 hours after the onset of symptoms, they modestly decrease the intensity and duration of symptoms.

6. Oseltamivir and zanamivir selectively inhibit neuraminidase, thereby preventing the release of new virions and their spread from cell to cell(Influenza viruses employ a specific neuraminidase that is inserted into the host cell membrane for the purpose of releasing newly formed virions. This enzyme is essential for the virus life cycle).

7. The most common adverse effects of oseltamivir are gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort and nausea, which can be alleviated by taking the drug with food.

8. B. Adamantane antivirals
The therapeutic spectrum of the adamantane derivatives, amantadine [a-MAN-ta-deen] and rimantadine [ri-MAN-ta-deen], is limited to influenza A infections. Due to widespread resistance, the adamantanes are not recommended in the United States for the treatment or prophylaxis of influenza A.

9. Mechanism of action: Amantadine and rimantadine interfere with the function of the viral M2 protein, possibly blocking uncoating of the virus particle and preventing viral release within infected cells.

10. Amantadine is mainly associated with CNS adverse effects, such as insomnia, dizziness, and ataxia. More serious adverse effects may include hallucinations and seizures.

11. C. Ribavirin
Ribavirin [rye-ba-VYE-rin], a synthetic guanosine analog, is effective against a broad spectrum of RNA and DNA viruses(. inhibits replication of RNA and DNA viruses). For example, ribavirin is used in treating immunosuppressed infants and young children. Ribavirin [rye-ba-VYE-rin], a synthetic guanosine analog, is effective against a broad spectrum of RNA and DNA viruses. For example, ribavirin is used in treating immunosuppressed infants and young children.

12. TREATMENT OF HEPATIC VIRAL INFECTIONS
The hepatitis viruses thus far identified (A, B, C, D, and E) each have a pathogenesis specifically involving replication in and destruction of hepatocytes.

13. Of this group, hepatitis B (a DNA virus) and hepatitis C (an RNA virus) are the most common causes of chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma and are the only hepatic viral infections for which therapy is currently available. [Note: Hepatitis A is a commonly encountered infection caused by oral ingestion of the virus, but it is not a chronic disease.]

14. A. Interferons
Interferons [in-ter-FEER-on] are a family of naturally occurring, inducible glycoproteins that interfere with the ability of viruses to infect cells. The interferons are synthesized by recombinant DNA technology.

15. At least three types of interferons exist—α, β, and γ
At least three types of interferons exist—α, β, and γ. One of the 15 interferon-α glycoproteins, interferon-α-2b has been approved for treatment of hepatitis B and C, condylomata acuminata, and cancers such as hairy cell leukemia and Kaposi sarcoma.

16. B. Lamivudine This cytosine analog is an inhibitor of both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reverse transcriptases (RTs). Lamivudine [la-MI-vyoo-deen] must be phosphorylated by host cellular enzymes to the triphosphate (active) form. This compound competitively inhibits HBV RNA-dependent DNA polymerase.

17. C. Adefovir Adefovir dipivoxil [ah-DEF-o-veer die-pih-VOCKS-ill] is a nucleotide analog that is phosphorylated by cellular kinases to adefovir diphosphate, which is then incorporated into viral DNA. This leads to termination of chain elongation and prevents replication of HBV. Adefovir is administered once a day and is renally excreted via glomerular filtration and tubular secretion.

18. D. Entecavir
Entecavir is effective against lamivudine-resistant strains of HBV and is dosed once daily. The drug is primarily excreted unchanged in the urine and dosage adjustments are needed in renal dysfunction.

19. E. Telbivudine F. Tenofovir (see tenofovir under Section VI - NRTIs) G
E. Telbivudine F. Tenofovir (see tenofovir under Section VI - NRTIs) G. Boceprevir and telaprevir

20. TREATMENT OF HERPESVIRUS INFECTIONS
Herpes viruses are associated with a broad spectrum of diseases, for example, cold sores, viral encephalitis, and genital infections. The drugs that are effective against these viruses exert their actions during the acute phase of viral infections and are without effect during the latent phase.

21. A. Acyclovir
Acyclovir [ay-SYE-kloe-veer] (acycloguanosine) is the prototypic antiherpetic therapeutic agent. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2, varicella-zoster virus (VZV), and some Epstein-Barr virus–mediated infections are sensitive to acyclovir.

22. Acyclovir is incorporated into the viral DNA, causing premature DNA chain termination. Acyclovir is administered by intravenous (IV), oral, or topical routes. Adverse effects include local irritation may occur from topical application; headache, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting may result after oral administration. Transient renal dysfunction may occur at high doses or in a dehydrated patient receiving the drug intravenously.

23. B. Cidofovir C. Foscarnet D. Ganciclovir E
B. Cidofovir C. Foscarnet D. Ganciclovir E. Penciclovir and famciclovir F. Trifluridine

24. TREATMENT FOR HIV INFECTION
Prior to approval of zidovudine in 1987, treatment of HIV infections focused on decreasing the occurrence of opportunistic infections that caused a high degree of morbidity and mortality in AIDS patients.

25. Today, the viral life cycle is understood, and a combination of drugs is used to suppress replication of HIV and restore the number of CD4 cells and immunocompetence to the host. This multidrug regimen is commonly referred to as “highly active antiretroviral therapy,” or HAART.

26. There are five classes of antiretroviral drugs, each of which targets one of the four viral processes. These classes of drugs are nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors (PIs), entry inhibitors, and the integrase inhibitors. The preferred initial therapy is a combination of two NRTIs with a PI, an NNRTI, or an integrase inhibitor.

27. Selection of the appropriate combination is based on 1) avoiding the use of two agents of the same nucleoside analog; 2) avoiding overlapping toxicities and genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of the virus; 3) patient factors, such as disease symptoms and concurrent illnesses;

28. 4) impact of drug interactions; and 5) ease of adherence to the regimen. The goals of therapy are to maximally and durably suppress HIV RNA replication, to restore and preserve immunologic function, to reduce HIV-related morbidity and mortality, and to improve quality of life.

29. NRTIS USED TO TREAT HIV INFECTION
Zidovudine (AZT)
Stavudine (d4T)
Didanosine (ddI)
Tenofovir (TDF)
Lamivudine (3TC)
Emtricitabine (FTC)
Abacavir (ABC)

30. NNRTIS USED TO TREAT HIV INFECTION
Nevirapine (NVP)
Delavirdine (DLV)
Efavirenz (EFV)
Etravirine (ETR)
Rilpivirine (RPV)

31. PROTEASE INHIBITORS USED TO TREAT HIV INFECTION
Ritonavir (RTV)
Saquinavir (SQV)
Indinavir (IDV)
Nelfinavir (NFV)
Fosamprenavir (FPV)
Lopinavir (LPV/r)
Atazanavir (ATV)
Tipranavir (TPV)
Darunavir (DRV)

32. ENTRY INHIBITORS USED TO TREAT HIV INFECTION
Enfuvirtide
Maraviroc

33. INTEGRASE INHIBITORS USED TO TREAT HIV INFECTION
Raltegravir
Elvitegravir
Dolutegravir

34. Thank You for Listening