1. Forestry 545 Materials & Methods Results I – tables February 25, 2014
Dr Sue Watts
Faculty of Forestry
University of British Columbia Vancouver BC CANADA

2. General format Title Author(s) affiliations Abstract Introduction
Materials & Methods
Results
Discussion
References

3. Are you a rabbit or a tortoise? or
freepicturesweb.com

4. Are you a rabbit or tortoise?
Are you a rabbit or a tortoise writer?
Rabbits
Hate first drafts
Write down everything and anything
Use a pen and never erase
Finish first draft very quickly
May not write a good first draft, but ready to revise

5. Are you a rabbit or tortoise?
Are you a rabbit or a tortoise writer?
Tortoises
Do not write a sentence unless perfect
Begin with one sentence and build on that
Revise everything from the first sitting before moving on
Take several sittings to finish first draft
First draft is strong

6. Are you a rabbit or tortoise?
Decide which approach best fits your style
If you are a tortoise, begin with the section that you feel is the most straight forward
For many people this is the Materials and Methods section

7. Are you a rabbit or tortoise?
If you are a rabbit, begin with the introduction and just plow straight on quickly getting as much information written as possible

8. Why have a Methods section?
Should have stated methodology in Introduction – even reasons for choice of method
However, Methods are the cornerstone of the Scientific Method which requires that results MUST be reproducible

9. Why have a Methods section?
The Methods section describes (and defends if necessary) the experimental design
The Methods provide enough detail for a competent worker to reproduce your results
Other possible purposes?

15. Why have a Methods section?
Provide information to let the reader judge if your method was appropriate (therefore, the validity of findings)
Provide information to show the extent to which results can be generalized
Most READERS skip the Methods section as they have enough info in the introduction!

16. Materials and Methods?
When do you need a separate Materials section?
Only if the materials that you used are numerous and their purification is complex or particularly important

17. What is in the Methods?
Only one rule for the Methods The Methods section should contain sufficient detail to permit the reader to repeat experiments

18. What is in the Methods? As you write, keep asking the same 2 questions
That said, you need to assume that your readers are trained investigators with considerable experience or your Methods section would resemble a lab manual
As you write, keep asking the same 2 questions

19. What is in the Methods?
Is the average reader already familiar with this kind of detail?
Is this particular detail essential to the experiment?

20. What is in the Methods? Not too much Not too little
You need to be careful to include the right amount of detail
Not too much
Not too little

21. Methods - order Chronological or Same order as results or
Order of presentation
Chronological or
Same order as results or
Succession of techniques

22. Methods - order
Methods are usually best described in the order in which they were used
Example, out of order
Cell growth was stopped with sodium chloride after incubation for hours at 37 degrees C
Example, in order
After incubation of cells for hours at 37 degrees C, their growth was stopped with sodium chloride

23. Methods – sub-headings
Sub-headings can be useful It may help to break methods up by a succession of techniques But this can be dangerous if techniques do not follow chronology……

24. Methods – sub-headings
For example You could find yourself writing about a method of fertilizer application before a description of the methods used to prepare the fertilizer

25. Methods – sub-headings
Benefits of sub-headings
Help with overall organization for readers
Readers have some white space for pause
Readers can jump to what they really want to read

26. Methods – sub-headings
Possible disadvantages of sub-headings
If sections are too short it will make your paper look like a series of titles
Too much white space can break the flow

27. Methods – sub-headings
Sub-heading rules
Do not use cryptic one–word headings
Make sure parallel headings stay that way
Cannot have one sub-heading just as you cannot slice a pie into one piece!

28. Methods - steps
Dividing into steps If you decide to divide a process of the methods into steps, try clusters of 2, 3 or 4 so that your audience can remember them

29. Methods - steps
Dividing into steps For example, if you have a process that has 8 logical steps, break into 2 lists of 4 if possible

30. Methods - steps Dividing into steps Laboratory procedures
Field procedures

31. Writing strategy for Methods
If a reader is confused by your strategy for describing your Methods it is usually because this strategy is not appropriate for the audience For each document that you write you need to tailor the strategy for the subject matter and the audience

32. What to include in Methods
Detail to include
What if you follow some one else’s method?
Unless method is exceptionally common, it is best to explain the principle behind the method (include reference)

33. What to include in Methods
Detail to include
What if you modify some one else’s method?
Then give details of the modification (include reference)

34. What to include in Methods
Detail to include Only if you have used an entirely new process or technique do you need to describe it in full Do not describe common statistical tests, and do not give any statistical results in this section

35. What to include in Methods
Detail to include If you list a product (eg nitrogen fertilizer), supply the name and location of the manufacturer Use generic or chemical names Avoid trade names when possible

36. What to include in Methods
Detail to include If you do use trade names, capitalize trade name and follow with a generic description ie Kleenex facial tissues Give the model number for equipment Special permits Approval for use of human subjects

37. Methods - using numbers
Numbers can be used to describe most things
Quantifiable words are needed for science
Numbers are precise and objective

38. Methods - using numbers
Numbers are precise and objective

39. Methods - using numbers
Try to define critical adjectives as numbers
What do you mean by tall?
What do you mean by heavy?
What does “brief” mean?

40. Methods - using numbers
Using numbers Try to define critical adjectives as numbers What do you mean by pain? Give it a 1-10 scale

41. Be careful with syntax
After standing in boiling water for 1 hour, we examined the flask

42. General manuscript format
Title
Author(s) affiliations
Abstract
Introduction
Materials & Methods
Results
Discussion
References

43. Methods Results
The most enduring part of your article is the “Recipe” Results
This is the centre of your report where you are saying “this is what you too will find if you follow my recipe”
Materials & Methods = recipe
Results = What happens if you follow the recipe

44. Results This is the section that constitutes the new knowledge
Although this may be the most important section, it is often the shortest
Introduction and Methods tell why and how you got the results
Discussion tells what your findings mean

45. Results Results should contain objects of your experiments
Results should point out salient features (A is bigger than B, some thing is linear over a given range)
Results should allow data to speak for themselves

46. Results
Results must be presented with clarity Your whole paper stands or falls on the basis of your Results section

47. Value of tables and figures
If you have built good tables and figures they will expose both your results and your experimental design In the final text the tables and figures together with the title and the abstract should form a coherent story

48. Value of tables and figures
What do you look at first in an article?
Title
Abstract
Figures
Tables
Introduction
Discussion
Results
Methods

49. Recording your data
Record EVERYTHING you observe Use count records such as numbers, times, measures

50. Selecting your data For a manuscript you must be selective
Only write about results produced by the recipes in your Materials & Methods
Observations in your Results are scientific ONLY when accompanied by the full recipe for repeating them
Do not include tid bits, no matter how intriguing

51. Presenting your data
You began your research with an idea of what to expect …..
Your Results section presents your data with organization but without interpretation
Set your expectations aside and let your data lead you

52. thingsbiological.wordpress.com

53. Presenting your data Brachypelma sabulosum 12 cm female 6 stripes
9 cm male 8 stripes
11 cm female 8 stripes
12 cm male 8 stripes
13 cm female 9 stripes
14 cm male 9 stripes
15 cm female 9 stripes
Brachypelma angustum
10 cm male 6 stripes
7 cm male 7 stripes

54. Presenting your data Female 12 cm 6 stripes 17 cm 7 stripes

55. Presenting your data 6 stripes (10 cm) 5 cm 8 stripes
8 stripes (5 cm, 7 cm, 9 cm, 11 cm, 12 cm)
9 stripes (13 cm, 14 cm, 15 cm)
5 cm 8 stripes
7 cm 7 stripes
7 cm 8 stripes
9 cm 8 stripes
10 cm 6 stripes
11 cm 8 stripes
12 cm 6 stripes
12 cm 8 stripes
13 cm 9 stripes
14 cm 9 stripes
15 cm 9 stripes
17 cm 7 stripes

56. Presenting your data Rearrange observation in different ways
In each arrangement look for patterns
Pick one of the simpler patterns for your paper
Look for neat concise patterns that include most of the data without tweaking

57. Remember the 12 steps? Step # 10 Construct tables and figures
Do you have any “gaps”?
If so, need to return to your experiments
Would additional examples give more confidence in a trend?
This is why you dealt with your tables and figures before you sat down to write

58. Results have 2 parts
Overall description of experiments giving the “big picture”
Presentation of specific data

59. Big picture Results
Need to present an overall picture without repeating any experimental details from the Materials & Methods
Describe what would have happened in the control situation, the natural setting, a wide angle view, what you first observed at the site

60. Specific data
In a manuscript present representative data not endlessly repetitive data
The fool collects facts; the wise man selects them!

61. Specific data
If you have only a few determinations then describe these in the text
Tabulate those variables that affect the reaction (do not tabulate or present variables not affecting reaction)

62. Specific data
May be important to describe negative aspects of your results
May need to state what you did not find under the conditions of your experiments

63. Specific data Do not use statistics unless they are useful!
33.3% of the trees in this experiment increased in height
33.3% of the test population were unaffected by the treatment
the third tree died before it could be measured

64. Specific data
Begin with those variables that cannot be easily quantified (texture, shape, colour) and say how these variables changed
This may be where you refer to illustrations and diagrams

65. Specific data
Next, describe key variables that you have quantified Look at patterns and point them out to the reader “In our sample of 12 spiders, most had 8 stripes”

66. Specific data
You may have consolidated your data into tables and graphs Refer to each table or graph with a brief summary in the text

67. Most common errors
Do not repeat in words what is already apparent from tables and figures Worse still…. Do not present the data shown in the tables or figures in the text as well

68. Most common errors
Do not be verbose when citing tables or figures ..it is clearly shown in Table 1 that light inhibited tree growth X ..light inhibited tree growth (Table 1) 

69. Most common errors
Do not go too far in avoiding verbiage “the left leg became numb at times and she walked it off… On her second day, the knee was better, on the third day it had completely disappeared” Antecedent is “numbness” but wording was a result of dumbness!

70. Using visual aids in Results
What is a visual aid?
Do you know how Cindy would answer this?
To an editor, every visual aid is an illustration
Every illustration that is not a table is a figure

71. Figures as visual aids What do we mean by figures?
line graphs & scatter graphs
bar graphs & histograms
pictograms
algorithms
maps
drawings
photographs

72. When do you use visual aids?
Most important question to ask is
“Is this illustration really necessary?”
Do not include an illustration just because you have it
A line in the text may be all you need

73. Using visual aids in Results
Purpose – for the reader
Allows self-discovery of the paper
Helps readers verify written claims
Saves reading time
Provides direct (shortcut) and pleasurable (memorable) access to writer’s contribution

74. Using visual aids in Results
Purpose – for the writer
Makes the paper more concise by replacing many words
Motivates readers to read more, yet allows them not to read all
Provides compelling evidence
Enables writer to represent complex relationships
Captures the reader’s attention

75. Do you need this illustration?
Effect of temperature on growth of oak (Quercus) seedlings
Temp (0 C) Growth in 48 h (mm)
-50 0
-40 0
-30 0
-20 0
-10 0
0 0
10 0
20 7
30 8
40 1
50 0
60 0
70 0
80 0
90 0
100 0
Day and Gastel 2006
Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all)
Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying)
Create custom chart!
Make rectangle and size excel chart
Past chart as picture
Right click and ungroup
Fix x axis

76. Do you need this illustration?
What did it tell you? Oak seedlings grew at temperatures between 20 and 40 degrees centigrade No measurable growth at less than 20 or more than 40 degrees

77. Choice of illustration – table?
Effect of streptomycin, isoniazid, and streptomycin plus isoniazid on Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Percentage of negative cultures at:
Treatment 2 wk 4 wk 6 wk 8 wk
Streptomycin
Isoniazid
Streptomycin isoniazid
Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all)
Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying)
Create custom chart!
Make rectangle and size excel chart
Past chart as picture
Right click and ungroup
Fix x axis
Day and Gastel 2006

78. Choice of illustration – graph?
Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all)
Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying)
Create custom chart!
Make rectangle and size excel chart
Past chart as picture
Right click and ungroup
Fix x axis
Effect of streptomycin, isoniazid , and streptomycin plus isoniazid on Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Day and Gastel 2006

79. Choice of illustration
Need to know your audience
Something prepared for one audience may not work for another
Visuals for a talk (or poster) may need to be very different than for a journal

80. Choice of illustration
Check your journal requirements
Some journals limit illlustrations due to costs
Colour may be out of your budget!

81. How many illustrations?
General rule
One illustration per 1,000 words (average page double-spaced is 250 words)
This translates to one table or figure per 4 pages of manuscript text

82. Paradox
Good tables and figures should both stand alone and be an indispensable part of the text

83. Illustrations must be free-standing
Reader must be able to understand an illustration without referring to the text
Title must  be adequate
Heading must be explanatory
Data must be arranged logically so that significance is obvious at a glance

84. Text reference to illustrations
Text must refer to tables and figures by number
Narrative should clarify why the information is needed
Table 1 gives the results X
Affected trees were significantly smaller in diameter (Table 1) 

85. When to use tables Very useful when initially organizing your data
“Useful” is not a good enough reason to include in a manuscript
Always prune extraneous material for a manuscript

86. When to use tables
That said – Tables can be a very good way of presenting complex information in a way that invites comparison Rule is to use a table when putting same data in text would take at least 3 x the space

87. Table titles
Two parts: 1. General subject Deer deaths in British Columbia. 2. Enough detail to make sense without the text Incidence of white-tailed deer fatalities in British Columbia,

88. Table titles
Some journals promote declarative titles Check with journal style guide

89. Table title (classic style)
Fractured clavicles and birth weight
Deliveries
Fractured clavicles
Birth weight g n % n %
All
Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all)
Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying)
Create custom chart!
Make rectangle and size excel chart
Past chart as picture
Right click and ungroup
Fix x axis
Gustavii 2002

90. Table title (declarative style)
Increase in fractured clavicles with birth weight
Deliveries
Fractured clavicles
Birth weight, g n % n %
All
Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all)
Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying)
Create custom chart!
Make rectangle and size excel chart
Past chart as picture
Right click and ungroup
Fix x axis
Gustavii 2002

91. Table format
It is easier to compare data down a column than across a row 5 7 3 8
Place independent variable in the rows and dependent variable in the columns

92. Table format May want to give row and column averages
Do not use fractions (only decimals)
Do not switch units in one column
Show units as part of column headings
Fill ALL cells (**, NA for blanks)
Use symbols or letter for footnotes

93. Table format Arrange like elements down, not across
Words in a column are left aligned
Numbers are right aligned
Tables should not have vertical lines
Standard abbreviations are encouraged, no periods

94. Printer / journal needs
Most journals are 1 or 2 columns
They will prefer to have small tables fitting to 1 column
Larger tables cannot always be placed where you would like
Adjust spacing in a table to create perceptual order to data

95. Illustration proportions1
1.5
For CJFR, 1 column width is 8.6 cm
2 column width is 18.2 cm
Page length is 23.7 cm

96. Tables should not be “word lists”
Adverse effects of Nicklecillin in 24 adult patients
No of patients
Side effect 14
Diarrhea 5
Eosinophilia (≥ 5eos/mm3) 2
Metallic taste 1
Yeast vaginitis
Mild rise in urea nitrogen
Hematuria (8-10 rbc/hpf)
Day and Gastel 2006

97. Avoid plus and minus signs
Oxygen requirement of various species of Streptomyces
Organism
Growth under aerobic conditions
Growth under anaerobic conditions
Streptomyces griseus + -
S coelicolor
S nocolor
S everycolor
S greenicus
S rainbowensky
Day and Gastel 2006

98. Reading across is less effective
Characteristics of antibiotic-producing Streptomyces
Determination
S fluoricolor
S griseus
S coelicolor
Optimal growth temp (0c)
-10 24 28
Colour of mycelium
Tan
Gray
Red
Antibiotic produced
Fluoricillinimycin
Streptomycin
Rholmondelay
Yield of antibiotic (mg/ml)
4,108 78 2
Day and Gastel 2006

99. Reading down is more effective
Characteristics requirement of four species of Streptomyces
Organism
Optimal growth temp (0C)
Colour of mycelium
Antibiotic produced
Yield of antibiotic (mg/ml)
S fluoricolor
-10
Tan
Fluoricillinmycin
4,108
S griseus 24
Gray
Streptomycin 78
S coelicolor 28
Red
Rholmondelay 2
S nocolor 92
Purple
Nomycin
Day and Gastel 2006

100. Too much accuracy? Male and female exam scores 2008 - 2014 2008 2010
2012
2014
Men
159.61
350.73
395.35
399.41
Women
100.31
152.46
220.27
310.64
Total
259.92
503.19
615.65
710.05

101. Data rounded off (easier to read)
Male and female exam scores
2008
2010
2012
2014
Men
160
351
395
399
Women
100
152
220
311
Total
260
503
615
710

102. A well constructed table
Induction of creatinine deaminase in Costridium sp Strains XP32 and XP56
N source
Clostridium sp strain XP32
Clostridium sp strain XP56
Total enzyme
Sp act (U/mg of protein)
Sp act (U/mg of protein)
Ammonia
0.58
0.32
0.50
0.28
Glutamic acid
5.36
1.48
2.18
0.61
Aspartic acid
2.72
0.15
1.47
0.06
Arginine
3.58
2.8
3.38
2.19
Creatinine
97.30
58.40
104.00
58.30
Day and Gastel 2006

103. Summary of table rules Split large tables to smaller ones
Make 1 summary table rather than several smaller ones
Provide clear captions
Round off numbers for easy comparisons
Consider including averages
Use same layout for a series of tables
To be continued next week…