1. The Mongols

3. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
Mongols epitomized nomadic society and culture: survival depended on herds, riding horses essential (boys and girls learned young), basic unit was the tribe, which was divided into kin-related clans, with leaders elected by the free men of the group
Leadership skills= courage in battle, ability to forge alliances

4. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
Mongols earlier had enjoyed moments of power and had carved out kingdoms in northern China in 4th and 10th centuries. 12th century Kabul Khan (Chinggis’ grandfather) defeated Qin attack against them
Temujin (Chinggis Khan) born in the 1170s and came to power as a teenager when his father was poisoned. Other chiefs did not want to follow him, so they didn’t and his encampment was attacked by a rival tribe, who took him prisoner in He escaped and banded together with a more powerful Mongol chieftain.
He avenged the insults against him and rose to be a powerful warrior and then others wanted to join him
1206- at a kuriltai (meeting of all Mongol chieftains) was elected the khagan- supreme ruler of all Mongol tribes (united the tribes)

5. Building the Mongol War Machine
Men of the tribe natural warriors. Short bows- most devastating weapon- could fire arrows with accuracy and speed without breaking horse’s stride and arrow could hit a distance 400 yards away
Khan brought organization and discipline. Old clan rivalries superseded by devotion to the khagan
Mongol forces divided into tumens, each with 10,000 warriors. Each tumen divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors
Messenger units, map units
By 13th century they were best trained, most experienced, most mobile soldiers in the world

6. Conquest: The Mongol Empire under Chinggis Khan
Saw his people with destiny to conquer the known world. Loved battle.
Began in First conquered Tangut kingdom of Xi Xia in northwest China and then the Qin Empire. Mongol armies quickly adapted to new setting in China and used captured Chinese artisans to perfect new weapons like battering rams, catapults that hurled explosive balls, and bamboo rockets that spread fire
Typically devastated all towns it came into contact with. Some people sold into slavery. Some towns which surrendered were required to pay tribute.

7. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
1219 annexed the Kara Khiai (an earlier Mongol empire)
Next attacked Khwarazm Empire of Muhammad Shah II, who at first didn’t believe in the strength of the Mongols but was quickly overpowered
Common strategy: attack, fake defeat to bring out enemy forces, attack again
Khan brought thousands of Turkic horsemen under his rule
1227 Khan dies but had established an empire from eastern Persia to North China Sea

8. Life Under the Mongol Imperium
Astute and tolerant rulers
Khan, though illiterate, like to learn from people he conquered
Established new capital at Karakorum
Religious tolerance
Peace and prosperity throughout the empire

9. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
1226- turned east to complete conquest of China, fell ill and died in August 1227
Empire divided between three sons and Batu, a grandson of son of Jochi
Ogedei, 3rd son, elected grand khan. Good diplomat. Directed conquest westward towards Russia, Europe and paid the price for peace within the empire

10. The Mongol Drive to the West
Golden Horde, under leadership of Batu, began invasion of Russia in 1236
and later in 1240s (Tatars or Tartars- people from hell) carried out the only successful winter invasions in Russia. Took down everyone except for Novgorod and Kiev. Russia weak and not united, which made invasion easy
1240 Kiev devastated (only spared the Saint Sophia cathedral) Novgorod spared again

11. Russia in Bondage 2 and ½ centuries of Mongol dominance in Russia
Peasantry in bad position because they had to give crops and labor to princes and Mongol overlords
Some cities benefited- esp. Moscow, which became a tribute collector and after 1328 used its status to eventually become the defender of Russia and launched an attack on Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikova, which they won
Turning point in Russia’s history: changes in Russian military organization, political style of Russian rulers, status of Moscow, cut off from key developments in western Europe like the Renaissance and Reformation

12. Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe
Early on Christian leaders in Europe happy about Mongol dominance because Christians under Muslim rule were worse off. Mythical Prestor John- story of a monarch cut off from Europe by Muslims and was returning to power
Rulers slow to realize the threat of Khan
1240 Hungarians surrender under the leadership of King Henry of Silesia and this opens way to dominate Adriatic Sea region in the south to Poland and German states in north
Death of Ogedei makes Batu flee back to Karakorum in preparation for struggle for succession, so Europe spared large Mongol invasion

13. The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland
Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Kahn and ruler of Ilkhan portions of the Empire. Captured and destroyed Baghdad in Murder of Abbasid caliph ended the dynasty that ruled Islamic world for 8 centuries
1260 defeated by armies of Mamluk, slave dynasty of Egypt
Hulegu stopped when his cousin Berke, new leader of Golden Horde, converted to Islam

14. The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
Assault on southern Song dynasty led by Kubilai Khan, grandson of Chinggis
Hard place for Mongols to conquer constantly on the march Kubilai assumed title of great khan (despite cousins in other empires) changed the name of his Mongol regime to Chinese dynastic title- Yuan. Kubilai then ruled most of China
Kubilai passed laws to preserve distinction between Mongol and Chinese- no intermarriage, no friendships, scholars couldn’t learn Mongolian language
BUT Kubilai fascinated by Chinese civilization. Capital at Tatu (present-day Beijing). Surrounded himself with Chinese advisors
New social structure- Mongols on top, then central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies , then north Chinese, then ethnic Chinese and minority people of the south

15. Gender roles and Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture
Mongol women strong, riders, hunters, wouldn’t submit to Chinese culture
Chabi- wife of Kubilai- exemplifies this strength and independence. She advised her husband often

16. Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence
Cosmopolitan couple attracted many foreigners- esp. Muslims, Persians, and Turks, which made many advancements in China
Welcomed travelers and emissaries in court (Marco Polo from Venice has most famous account of this)

17. Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance
Most of scholar-gentry still viewed Khan as a Mongol overlord, who was an uncouth barbarian, who endangered Chinese tradition
Also, he promoted the artisans and merchants, which further alienated the scholar-gentry class
Amazing navy
Cities flourished, trade flourished, art flourished (The Romance of the West Chamber- famous Chinese dramatic work)
Favorable policies towards peasants

18. The Fall of the House of Yuan
Slow erosion of Mongol military power- defeats by Japanese and later Vietnam and Java
Kubilai’s successors lacked capacity for leadership
By 1350s signs of decline present: banditry, piracy, famine, secret religious sects
Led to rise of Ming dynasty under the leadership of a man from a poor peasant family: Ju Yuanzhang

19. Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur
Turks
Timur-i Lang (Timur the Lame) interesting personality- highly cultivated on the one hand and vicious on the other
Began conquests in Persia, Fertile Crescent, India, and Russia in 1360s from base in Samarkand
Smaller than Mongols but more ferocious – pyramids of skulls
His rule did not bring increased trade, peace, nor cross-cultural exchanges
1405- died and successors fought for power and his empire was pulled apart

20. Reflection
In the end, is Ghengis Khan a hero or villain? How barbaric were the “barbarians”?