APPENDIX A HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE BASICS

APPENDIX A HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE BASICS
Technical architecture refers to the structured process of designing and building software architecture, with focus on interaction with software and hardware developers. Technical architecture is a part of software architecture, which focuses on how to deal with certain aspects of the software engineering process. It allows us to design better systems by: Meeting system requirements and objectives: Both functional and non-functional requirements can be prioritized as "must have", "should have" or "want", where "must have" identifies properties that the system must have in order to be acceptable. An architecture allows us to evaluate and make tradeoffs among requirements of differing priority. Though system qualities (also known as non-functional requirements) can be compromised later in the development process, many will not be met if not explicitly taken into account at the architectural level. Enabling flexible partitioning of the system: A good architecture enables flexible distribution of the system by allowing the system and its constituent applications to be partitioned among processors in many different ways without having to redesign the distributable component parts. This requires careful attention to the distribution potential of components early in the architectural design process. Reducing cost of maintenance and evolution: Architecture can help minimize the costs of maintaining and evolving a given system over its entire lifetime by anticipating the main kinds of changes that will occur in the system, ensuring that the system's overall design will facilitate such changes, and localizing as far as possible the effects of such changes on design documents, code, and other system work products. This can be achieved by the minimization and control of subsystem interdependencies. Increasing reuse and integration with legacy and third party software: An architecture may be designed to enable and facilitate the (re)use of certain existing components, frameworks, class libraries, legacy or third-party applications, etc.. Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Overview HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE BASICS Hardware Basics
Computer Categories Software Basics Technical architecture refers to the structured process of designing and building software architecture, with focus on interaction with software and hardware developers. Technical architecture is a part of software architecture, which focuses on how to deal with certain aspects of the software engineering process. It allows us to design better systems by: Meeting system requirements and objectives: Both functional and non-functional requirements can be prioritized as "must have", "should have" or "want", where "must have" identifies properties that the system must have in order to be acceptable. An architecture allows us to evaluate and make tradeoffs among requirements of differing priority. Though system qualities (also known as non-functional requirements) can be compromised later in the development process, many will not be met if not explicitly taken into account at the architectural level. Enabling flexible partitioning of the system: A good architecture enables flexible distribution of the system by allowing the system and its constituent applications to be partitioned among processors in many different ways without having to redesign the distributable component parts. This requires careful attention to the distribution potential of components early in the architectural design process. Reducing cost of maintenance and evolution: Architecture can help minimize the costs of maintaining and evolving a given system over its entire lifetime by anticipating the main kinds of changes that will occur in the system, ensuring that the system's overall design will facilitate such changes, and localizing as far as possible the effects of such changes on design documents, code, and other system work products. This can be achieved by the minimization and control of subsystem interdependencies. Increasing reuse and integration with legacy and third party software: An architecture may be designed to enable and facilitate the (re)use of certain existing components, frameworks, class libraries, legacy or third-party applications, etc..

INTRODUCTION Information technology (IT) - Any computer-based tool that people use to work with information and support the information and information-processing needs of an organization Hardware - Consists of the physical devices associated with a computer system Software - The set of instructions that the hardware executes to carry out specific tasks CLASSROOM EXERCISE Web-Enabled Cell Phones and Web Computers When categorizing computers by size for personal needs, the focus is typically on PDAs, tablet computers, notebook computers, and desktop computers. There are several other variations including smartphones (or Web-enabled cell phones) that include instant text messaging and Web browsing capabilities. Split students into groups of four people and have them research smartphone capabilities and costs. Have each group make a purchase recommendation based on their research. Ask students what their vision of the future is for cell phone telephony. Will we ever get rid of notebooks and clunky desktops in favor of more portable and cheaper devices such as smartphones? Why or why not?

HARDWARE BASICS Computer - An electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept, manipulate, and store data Hardware components include: Central processing unit (CPU) Primary storage Secondary storage Input device Output device Communication device Six Hardware Components Central processing unit (CPU) The actual hardware that interprets and executes the program (software) instructions and coordinates how all the other hardware devices work together. Primary storage The computer’s main memory, which consists of the random access memory (RAM), cache memory, and the read-only memory (ROM) that is directly accessible to the central processing unit (CPU). Secondary storage Equipment designed to store large volumes of data for long-term storage (e.g., diskette, hard drive, memory card, CD). Input devices Equipment used to capture information and commands (e.g., keyboard, scanner). Output devices Equipment used to see, hear, or otherwise accept the results of information processing requests (e.g., monitor, printer). Communication devices Equipment used to send information and receive it from one location to another (e.g., modem).

HARDWARE BASICS

HARDWARE BASICS Apple’s 1984 video (and others) Makes for an excellent discussion on how far we have come with hardware and software Steve Jobs introducing the Mac:

Central Processing Unit
Central processing unit (CPU) (or microprocessor) - The actual hardware that interprets and executes the program (software) instructions and coordinates how all the other hardware devices work together Control unit - Interprets software instructions and literally tells the other hardware devices what to do, based on the software instructions Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) - Performs all arithmetic operations (for example, addition and subtraction) and all logic operations (such as sorting and comparing numbers) Which component listed above is the most important for a computer? Which component listed above is the least important for a computer?

Data Representation Binary digit (bit) - The smallest unit of information that a computer can process (0-1) Byte - A group of 8 bits representing one natural language character, digit or other value. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for character representation.

Data Representation Uppercase A: Lowercase a: 1 character == 1 byte
65 (decimal) 41(hexadecimal) (binary) Lowercase a: 97 (decimal) 61 (hexadecimal) (binary) 1 character == 1 byte

Data Representation CLASSROOM EXERCISE HARD DRIVE TIME LINE
When will computers be available with petabyte hard drives? Ask your students to compile a time line of hard drive sizes and predict when petabyte and exabyte computers will be available This is a good exercise to discuss Moore’s Law

CPU speed factors Clock speed Word length Bus width Chip line width CPU Speed Factors Clock speed—the speed of the internal clock of a CPU that sets the pace at which operations proceed within the computer’s internal processing circuitry. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz). Faster clock speeds bring noticeable gains in microprocessor-intensive tasks, such as recalculating a spreadsheet. Word length—number of bits (0s and 1s) that can be processed by the CPU at any one time. Computers work in terms of bits and bytes using electrical pulses that have two states: on and off. A binary digit (bit) is the smallest unit of information that a computer can process. A bit can be either a 1 (on) or a 0 (off). A group of eight bits represents one natural language character and is called a byte. Bus width—the size of the internal electrical pathway along which signals are sent from one part of the computer to another. A wider bus can move more data, hence faster processing. Chip line width—the distance between transistors on a chip. The shorter the chip line width the faster the chip since more transistors can be placed on a chip and the data and instructions travel short distances during processing.

The number of CPU cycles per second (clock speed) determines the speed of a CPU Megahertz (MHz) - The number of millions of CPU cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) - The number of billions of CPU cycles per second Do you know how fast your computer operates? How can you tell? Right click on MyComputer and click on properties

Speed Factors Word length: Number of bits that can be processed at one time) (16-bit, 32-bit) The larger the word length, the greater the speed. Data bus width: It acts as a highway between the CPU, primary storage and other devices. 32-bit word length with 16-bit data bus width needs to send data 16 bits at a time. The larger the data bus width, the greater the speed.

Bus Line A bus line is an electrical pathway through which bits are transmitted within the CPU and between the CPU and other devices in the system unit. There are 3 buses that link CPU to primary storage and other devices. Data Bus: Moves data from/to primary storage Address Bus: Transmit signals for locating addresses in primary storage Control Bus: Specify to read or write data

Speed Factors Cycle speed: Every event must be sequenced so that one step logically follows another. The control unit sets a beat to the chip, which is established by an internal clock. CPU: 1 GigaHertz (GHz) (billions of cycles/second) Workstation  100 MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second) Mainframe  MIPS Supercomputers  1 teraflops (one trillion floating point operations per second)

Advances in CPU Design Complex instruction set computer (CISC) chip - Type of CPU that can recognize as many as or more instructions, enough to carry out most computations directly Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) chip - Limit the number of instructions (most frequently used ones) the CPU can execute to increase processing speed Virtualization - A protected memory space created by the CPU allowing the computer to create virtual machines What kind of chip is located in your computer? How can virtualization help a business? A business can save money because it can purchase one machine that can operate as many instead of having to incur the cost of many machines

System Unit The box or the cabinet is the system unit containing the electrical and hardware components that make computer work. Peripheral devices are hardware that is outside the CPU. The system unit includes: power supply, motherboard, CPU chip, Ram and ROM chips, other forms of memory (cache, VRAM, flash), expansion slots and boards, bus lines, ports, PC slots and cards.

System Unit Power Supply
It is a device that converts AC to DC to run the computer. Motherboard It is the main circuit board in the system unit.

System Unit - Motherboard

System Unit - Slots ISA - PCI slots are for video, sound, internal modem, etc. Connectors connect motherboard to HDD, CD-ROM, etc.. Peripheral devices as monitor, mouse, keyboard, scanner, printer, digital camera are connected using expansion (adapter or interface) cards.

System Unit - Back

Primary Storage Primary storage - The computer’s main memory, which consists of the random access memory (RAM), cache memory, and the read-only memory (ROM) that is directly accessible to the CPU Do you use primary storage? If so, when and how?

Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random access memory (RAM) - The computer’s primary working memory, in which program instructions and data are stored so that they can be accessed directly by the CPU via the processor’s high-speed external data bus Volatility Cache memory Volatility - refers to RAM’s complete loss of stored information if power is interrupted Cache memory - a small unit of ultra-fast memory that is used to store recently accessed or frequently accessed data so that the CPU does not have to retrieve this data from slower memory circuits such as RAM What types of files are typically stored in cache memory? Internet sites

Random Access Memory (RAM)
CLASSROOM EXERCISE WHAT IS NEW Research the Internet to find out the latest in the chip wars Who is the current leader? What are some of the new features? Who has the largest sales?

Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-only memory (ROM) - The portion of a computer’s primary storage that does not lose its contents when one switches off the power Flash memory Memory card Memory stick Flash memory - a special type of rewriteable read-only memory (ROM) that is compact and portable Memory card - contain high-capacity storage that holds data such as captured images, music, or text files Memory stick - provide nonvolatile memory for a range of portable devices including computers, digital cameras, MP3 players, and PDAs Memory sticks are extremely useful devices for storing and transferring files For students who have not yet been introduced to a memory stick demonstrate to the classroom how you store and transfer files to and from the device

Secondary Storage Secondary storage - Consists of equipment designed to store large volumes of data for long-term storage Megabyte (MB or M or Meg) - Roughly 1 million bytes Gigabyte (GB) - Roughly 1 billion bytes Terabyte (TB) - Roughly 1 trillion bytes A computer with 256 MB of RAM translates into the RAM being able to hold roughly 256 million characters of data and software instructions Do you know the storage size on your computer?

Magnetic Medium Magnetic medium - A secondary storage medium that uses magnetic techniques to store and retrieve data on disks or tapes coated with magnetically sensitive materials Magnetic tape - An older secondary storage medium that uses a strip of thin plastic coated with a magnetically sensitive recording medium Hard drive - A secondary storage medium that uses several rigid disks coated with a magnetically sensitive material and housed together with the recording heads in a hermetically sealed mechanism CLASSROOM EXERCISE 50 Years of Hard Drives Great article for students to read prior to class

Secondary Storage A solid-state drive (SSD) (also known as a solid-state disk though it contains no actual disk, nor a drive motor to spin a disk) is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies as memory to store data persistently. (Flash memory, DRAM-Dynamic RAM) Serial ATA (SATA, Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) is a computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives. Offers reduced cable size and cost (seven conductors instead of 40 or 80), faster and efficient data transfer.

Optical Medium Optical medium types include:
Compact disk-read-only memory (CD-ROM) Compact disk-read-write (CD-RW) drive Digital video disk (DVD) DVD-ROM drive Digital video disk-read/write (DVD-RW) Optical medium types include: Compact disk-read-only memory (CD-ROM) drive—an optical drive designed to read the data encoded on CD-ROMs and to transfer this data to a computer Compact disk-read-write (CD-RW) drive—an optical drive that enables users to erase existing data and to write new data repeatedly to a CD-RW Digital video disk (DVD)—a CD-ROM format capable of storing up to a maximum of 17 GB of data; enough for a full-length feature movie DVD-ROM drive—a read-only drive designed to read the data encoded on a DVD and transfer the data to a computer Digital video disk-read/write (DVD-RW)—a standard for DVD discs and player/recorder mechanisms that enables users to record in the DVD format

Ports A port is a socket on the outside of the system unit that is connected to a board on the inside of the system unit. Game ports: Allow attachment of a joystick or similar game playing device Parallel ports: Allow lines to be connected that will enable 8 bits to be transmitted simultaneously. Serial ports (RS-232, COM): Enable a line to be connected that will send bits one after another on a single line. 9-pin connector COM1 mouse, 25-pin COM2 modem. Video adapter ports: Used to connect monitor to the video adapter card.

Ports SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) ports: Provide an interface for transferring data at high speeds for up to 7 or 15 SCSI compatible devices (external hard drives, CD-ROM drives, magnetic tape backup units). Infrared ports: Allow computer to make a no cable connection with infrared-capable devices (sound systems that are a few feet apart). USB (Universal Serial Bus) allows up to 127 peripherals to be connected through just one general-purpose port which promises simplification. USB will interpret the signals from each peripheral device and tell the computer to recognize it.

Input Devices Input device - Equipment used to capture information and commands CLASSROOM EXERCISE INVENTION OF THE MOUSE Douglas C. Engelbart, inventor of the mouse, gives a demo in 1968 Check out clips 2 and 3 (2 minutes each) Can you name a few additional input devices not shown in the above slide? Manual Input Devices Joystick—widely used as an alternative to the keyboard for computer games and some professional applications, such as computer-aided design Keyboard—provides a set of alphabetic, numeric, punctuation, symbol, and control keys Microphone—captures sounds such as a voice for voice recognition software Mouse—one or more control buttons housed in a palm-sized case and designed so that one can move it about on the table next to the keyboard Pointing stick—causes the pointer to move on the screen by applying directional pressure (popular on notebooks and PDAs) Touch screen—allows the use of a finger to point at and touch a particular function to perform Touchpad—a form of a stationary mouse on which the movement of a finger causes the pointer on the screen to move Automated Input Devices Bar code scanner—captures information that exists in the form of vertical bars whose width and distance apart determine a number Digital camera—captures still images or video as a series of 1s and 0s Magnetic ink character reader—reads magnetic ink numbers printed on checks that identify the bank, checking account, and check number Optical-character recognition—converts text into digital format for computer input Optical-mark recognition (OMR)—detects the presence or absence of a mark in a predetermined place (popular for multiple-choice exams). Point-of-sale (POS)—captures information at the point of a transaction, typically in a retail environment Radio frequency identification (RFID)—uses active or passive tags in the form of chips or smart labels that can store unique identifiers and relay this information to electronic readers

Input Devices CLASSROOM EXERCISE INVENTION OF THE MOUSE Douglas C. Engelbart, inventor of the mouse, gives a demo in 1968 Check out clips 2 and 3 (2 minutes each) Can you name a few additional input devices not shown in the above slide? Manual Input Devices Joystick—widely used as an alternative to the keyboard for computer games and some professional applications, such as computer-aided design Keyboard—provides a set of alphabetic, numeric, punctuation, symbol, and control keys Microphone—captures sounds such as a voice for voice recognition software Mouse—one or more control buttons housed in a palm-sized case and designed so that one can move it about on the table next to the keyboard Pointing stick—causes the pointer to move on the screen by applying directional pressure (popular on notebooks and PDAs) Touch screen—allows the use of a finger to point at and touch a particular function to perform Touchpad—a form of a stationary mouse on which the movement of a finger causes the pointer on the screen to move Automated Input Devices Bar code scanner—captures information that exists in the form of vertical bars whose width and distance apart determine a number Digital camera—captures still images or video as a series of 1s and 0s Magnetic ink character reader—reads magnetic ink numbers printed on checks that identify the bank, checking account, and check number Optical-character recognition—converts text into digital format for computer input Optical-mark recognition (OMR)—detects the presence or absence of a mark in a predetermined place (popular for multiple-choice exams). Point-of-sale (POS)—captures information at the point of a transaction, typically in a retail environment Radio frequency identification (RFID)—uses active or passive tags in the form of chips or smart labels that can store unique identifiers and relay this information to electronic readers

Input Devices Human-captured data refers to input captured by a person typing on a keyboard, clicking a mouse, speaking into a microphone, or a similar interaction. Machine-captured data is data captured by an electronic or mechanical device. Point-of-sale terminals are scanners used in retail stores.

Input Devices Keyboard: Device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into electrical signals that are machine-readable by computer's processor. Pointing Devices: Control the position of cursor or pointer on the screen. Examples are: mouse, joystick, trackball, touchpad, pen-based systems (tablets-notebooks consisting of a flat display and a pen like stylus that digitizes handwriting), touch screen (sensitized video display).

Input Devices Source Data-Entry Devices: Create machine-readable data on magnetic media or paper or feed it directly into the computer's processor. Examples are: scanning devices (barcode readers (OCR), fax machines, scanners (use laser beams and reflected light to translate images of text, drawings, photos, and the like into digital form), magnetic stripe cards, smart cards with chips, sensors (collect data directly from environment-heat, water, smoke, movement, etc.), audio/voice input devices (microphone), video input devices (cameras), human-biology input devices (finger print), files.

Input Devices What type of input device are virtual reality equipments such as headgear, glove, suit? What about? brain-wave devices 3D devices

Output Devices Monitors
Which types of output devices do you use most frequently? Output Devices Cathode-ray tube (CRT)—a vacuum tube that uses an electron gun (cathode) to emit a beam of electrons that illuminates phosphors on a screen as the beam sweeps across the screen repeatedly. A monitor is often called a CRT. Liquid crystal display (LCDs)—a low-powered display technology used in laptop computers where rod-shaped crystal molecules change their orientation when an electrical current flows through them. Laser printer—a printer that forms images using an electrostatic process, the same way a photocopier works. Ink-jet printer—a printer that makes images by forcing ink droplets through nozzles. Plotter—a printer that uses computer-directed pens for creating high-quality images, blueprints, schematics, etc

Output Devices Printers
Which types of output devices do you use most frequently? Output Devices Cathode-ray tube (CRT)—a vacuum tube that uses an electron gun (cathode) to emit a beam of electrons that illuminates phosphors on a screen as the beam sweeps across the screen repeatedly. A monitor is often called a CRT. Liquid crystal display (LCDs)—a low-powered display technology used in laptop computers where rod-shaped crystal molecules change their orientation when an electrical current flows through them. Laser printer—a printer that forms images using an electrostatic process, the same way a photocopier works. Ink-jet printer—a printer that makes images by forcing ink droplets through nozzles. Plotter—a printer that uses computer-directed pens for creating high-quality images, blueprints, schematics, etc

Output Devices Monitors
Printers: Produce a printed hard copy of information output laser: one page at a time; drum charged, laser selectively remove charge, toner is deposited on beamed parts, drum rotates and toner is fused to paper inkjet: similar to dot-matrix, ink is sprayed Thermal printers use colored waxes and heat to produce images by burning dots onto special paper (high quality). Multi function devices: copy+fax+scan+print Plotters Voice output devices (speakers)

Communication Devices
Communication device - Equipment used to send information and receive it from one location to another Dial-up access Cable Digital subscriber line Wireless Satellite Which type of communication device do you use most frequently? Different forms of communication devices include: Dial-up Access - On demand access using a modem and regular telephone line (POT). Cable - Special cable modem and cable line required. DSL Digital Subscriber Line - This technology uses the unused digital portion of a regular copper telephone line to transmit and receive information. A special modem and adapter card are required. Wireless (LMCS) - Access is gained by connection to a high-speed cellular like local multipoint communications system (LMCS) network via wireless transmitter/receiver. Satellite - Newer versions have two-way satellite access, removing need for phone line.

COMPUTER CATEGORIES For the past 20 years, federally funded supercomputing research has given birth to some of the computer industry’s most significant technology breakthroughs including: Clustering Parallel processing Mosaic browser Clustering - allows companies to chain together thousands of PCs to build mass-market systems Parallel processing - provides the ability to run two or more tasks simultaneously and is viewed as the chip industry’s future Mosaic browser - which morphed into Netscape and made the Web a household name Why is parallel processing significant for the computer industry?

COMPUTER CATEGORIES Computer categories include:
Personal digital assistant (PDA) Laptop Tablet Desktop Workstation Minicomputer Mainframe computer Supercomputer Personal digital assistant (PDA) A small hand-held computer that performs simple tasks such as taking notes, scheduling appointments, and maintaining an address book and a calendar. The PDA screen is touch-sensitive, allowing a user to write directly on the screen, capturing what is written. Laptop A fully functional computer designed to be carried around and run on battery power. Laptops come equipped with all of the technology that a personal desktop computer has, yet weigh as little as two pounds. Tablet A pen-based computer that provides the screen capabilities of a PDA with the functional capabilities of a laptop or desktop computer. Similar to PDAs, tablet PCs use a writing pen or stylus to write notes on the screen and touch the screen to perform functions such as clicking on a link while visiting a Web site. Desktop Available with a horizontal system box (the box is where the CPU, RAM, and storage devices are held) with a monitor on top, or a vertical system box (called a tower) usually placed on the floor within a work area. Workstation Similar to a desktop but has more powerful mathematical and graphics processing capabilities and can perform more complicated tasks in less time. Typically used for software development, Web development, engineering, and e-business tools. Minicomputer (midrange computer) - Designed to meet the computing needs of several people simultaneously in a small to medium-size business environment. A common type of minicomputer is a server and is used for managing internal company networks and Web sites. Minicomputers are more powerful than desktop computers but also cost more, ranging in price from $5,000 to several hundred thousand dollars Mainframe computer Designed to meet the computing needs of hundreds of people in a large business environment. Mainframe computers are a step up in size, power, capability, and cost from minicomputers. Mainframes can cost in excess of $1 million. With processing speeds greater than 1 trillion instructions per second (compared to a typical desktop that can process about 2.5 billion instructions per second), mainframes can easily handle the processing requests of hundreds of people simultaneously. Supercomputer The fastest, most powerful, and most expensive type of computer. Organizations such as NASA that are heavily involved in research and number crunching employ supercomputers because of the speed with which they can process information.

SOFTWARE BASICS System software - Controls how the various technology tools work together along with the application software Operating system software Utility software Application software Can you rank the above in order of importance to a computer? Operating system Application Utility Operating system software - controls the application software and manages how the hardware devices work together Utility software - provides additional functionality to the operating system Application software - used for specific information processing needs, including payroll, customer relationship management, project management, training, and many others

Operating System Software
Booting: Loading an operating system into a computer's main memory from disk. Managing Storage Media Providing a User Interface: Command-driven, menu-driven, GUI, NUI Managing Computer Resources Managing Files Managing Tasks Booting: When you turn on the machine, programs called diagnostic routines first start up and test the main memory, the central processing unit, and other parts of the system to make sure they are running properly. The process of loading an operating system into a computer's main memory from disk. This loading is accomplished by a program called boot routine that is stored permanently in the computer's electronic circuitry. Next other programs, indicated as BIOS (Basic Input Output System) will be copied to main memory to help the computer interpret keyboard characters or transmit characters to the display screen or to a diskette. Then the boot program obtains the operating system, usually from hard disk, and loads into the computer's main memory. The operating system remains in main memory until you turn the computer off. New operating systems puts user into a graphically designed starting screen, from which you can choose the applications programs you want to run or the files you want to open. One of the functions is formatting a diskette which is new and not formatted, or which you want to erase everything in it. Managing Storage Media User-controllable part of the operating system that allows user to communicate or interact with it. There are 4 types: Providing a User Interface GUI: Easiest interface. Allows the use of graphics (images) and menus as well as keystrokes to choose commands. Menu-driven: Requires the use of cursor-movement keys to choose a command from a menu. Command-driven: Requires user to enter a command by typing in codes or words (DOS). Network user interface (NUI): Offers a browser-like interface that helps user interact with online programs and files. Looks like GUIs. Operating system acts like a police officer directing traffic. This activity is performed by the supervisor, or kernel, the central component of the Operating system. The supervisor which manages the CPU, resides in main memory while the computer is on and directs other "non-resident" programs to perform tasks to support application programs. Managing Computer Resources If you enter a command to print a document, the applications software directs the OS to select a printer (if there is more than one). Then the OS notifies the computer to begin sending data and instructions to the appropriate program (printer driver). Meanwhile, many operating systems allow you to continue writing in your applications software. The OS also manages memory - it keeps track of the locations within main memory where the programs and data are stored. It can swap portions of data and programs between main memory and secondary storage, such as hard disk. Memory can be managed in several ways: Queues: Programs wait on disk in queues for their turn to be executed. A queue is a temporary holding for programs or data. Foreground/background: Foreground programs have the highest priority, and the background programs have the lowest priority. Partitioning: Divide memory into separate areas called partitions, each of which can hold a program or data. Files of data and programs are located in many places of hard disk or other secondary storage devices. OS allows you to find the files. Some file management commands are: Managing Files Erase/Delete Back up (disk) Copy (file or programs) Rename Multi-tasking: One user executing more than one program concurrently. OS directs the CPU to spend a predetermined amount of time executing the instructions for each program, one at a time. The processor speed is usually so fast that it may seem as if all the programs are being executed at the same time. A computer is required to perform many different tasks at once. OS can manage tasks in different ways: Managing Tasks Time sharing: Operating system capability that allows many users to share computer processing resources simultaneously. CPU spends a fixed amount of time on one program before moving on to another. Multi-programming: Method of executing different users' program concurrently (multiple user environment). The CPU spends a certain amount of time executing each users' program. The time spent is not fixed but depends on the event (calculation or print) Multi-processing: Operating system capability that links together two or more computers or CPUs to process two or more programs simultaneously (single or multiple users). This can entail processing instructions from different programs or different instructions from the same program. Multi-processing operating system is much more sophisticated than multi-tasking.

Utility Software Types of utility software Crash-proof Disk image
Disk optimization Encrypt data File and data recovery Text protect Preventative security Spyware Uninstaller Types of Utility Software Crash-proof - Helps save information if a computer crashes Disk image for data recovery - Relieves the burden of reinstalling and tweaking scores of applications if a hard drive crashes or becomes irretrievably corrupted Disk optimization - Organizes information on a hard disk in the most efficient way Encrypt data - Protects confidential information from unauthorized eyes. Programs such as BestCrypt simply and effectively apply one of several powerful encryption schemes to hard drive information. Users unlock the information by entering a password in the BestCrypt control panel. The program can also secure information on rewritable optical disks or any other storage media that is assigned a drive letter. File and data recovery - Retrieves accidental deletion of photos or documents in Windows XP by utilities such as Free Undelete, which searches designated hard drive deletion areas for recognizable data. Text protect - In Microsoft Word, prevents users from typing over existing text after accidentally hitting the Insert key. Launch the Insert Toggle Key program, and the PC will beep whenever a user presses the Insert key. Preventative security - Through programs such as Window Washer, erases file histories, browser cookies, cache contents, and other crumbs that applications and Windows leave on a hard drive. Spyware - Removes any software that employs a user’s Internet connection in the background without the user’s knowledge or explicit permission. Uninstaller - Can remove software that is no longer needed.

Utility Software Data recovery: Used to resurrect or undelete a file or information that has been accidentally deleted (recycle bin, Norton Unerase Wizard). Virus protection: A virus consists of hidden programming instructions that are buried within an application or systems program. They copy themselves to other programs. Antivirus software scans hard disks or diskettes and memory to detect viruses. File defragmentation: Fragmentation is the scattering portions of files about the disk in non-adjacent areas, thus greatly slowing access to the files. Defragger will find all scattered files and reorganize them. Types of Utility Software Crash-proof - Helps save information if a computer crashes Disk image for data recovery - Relieves the burden of reinstalling and tweaking scores of applications if a hard drive crashes or becomes irretrievably corrupted Disk optimization - Organizes information on a hard disk in the most efficient way Encrypt data - Protects confidential information from unauthorized eyes. Programs such as BestCrypt simply and effectively apply one of several powerful encryption schemes to hard drive information. Users unlock the information by entering a password in the BestCrypt control panel. The program can also secure information on rewritable optical disks or any other storage media that is assigned a drive letter. File and data recovery - Retrieves accidental deletion of photos or documents in Windows XP by utilities such as Free Undelete, which searches designated hard drive deletion areas for recognizable data. Text protect - In Microsoft Word, prevents users from typing over existing text after accidentally hitting the Insert key. Launch the Insert Toggle Key program, and the PC will beep whenever a user presses the Insert key. Preventative security - Through programs such as Window Washer, erases file histories, browser cookies, cache contents, and other crumbs that applications and Windows leave on a hard drive. Spyware - Removes any software that employs a user’s Internet connection in the background without the user’s knowledge or explicit permission. Uninstaller - Can remove software that is no longer needed.

Utility Software Backup: Makes a duplicate of every file on the hard disk on diskettes or other removable storage medium (zip cartridge). Disk repair: There are small glitches that can corrupt the data and programs. A disk repair utility will check hard disk drive for defects and make repairs on the spot or mark the bad areas (which will not be used again). Data compression: When your hard disk is full you can: delete unused files, buy a new disk, move some files to an external storage or use data compression. This utility removes redundant elements, gaps, and unnecessary data from a computer's storage space so less space is required to store or transmit data (DriveSpace or DoubleDisk). Types of Utility Software Crash-proof - Helps save information if a computer crashes Disk image for data recovery - Relieves the burden of reinstalling and tweaking scores of applications if a hard drive crashes or becomes irretrievably corrupted Disk optimization - Organizes information on a hard disk in the most efficient way Encrypt data - Protects confidential information from unauthorized eyes. Programs such as BestCrypt simply and effectively apply one of several powerful encryption schemes to hard drive information. Users unlock the information by entering a password in the BestCrypt control panel. The program can also secure information on rewritable optical disks or any other storage media that is assigned a drive letter. File and data recovery - Retrieves accidental deletion of photos or documents in Windows XP by utilities such as Free Undelete, which searches designated hard drive deletion areas for recognizable data. Text protect - In Microsoft Word, prevents users from typing over existing text after accidentally hitting the Insert key. Launch the Insert Toggle Key program, and the PC will beep whenever a user presses the Insert key. Preventative security - Through programs such as Window Washer, erases file histories, browser cookies, cache contents, and other crumbs that applications and Windows leave on a hard drive. Spyware - Removes any software that employs a user’s Internet connection in the background without the user’s knowledge or explicit permission. Uninstaller - Can remove software that is no longer needed.

Application Software Types of application software Browser
Communication Data management Desktop publishing Groupware Presentation graphics Programming Spreadsheet Word processing Types of Application Software Browser - Enables the user to navigate the World Wide Web. The two leading browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer Communication - Turns a computer into a terminal for transmitting data to and receiving data from distant computers through the telephone system Data management - Provides the tools for data retrieval, modification, deletion, and insertion; for example, Access, MySQL, and Oracle Desktop publishing - Transforms a computer into a desktop publishing workstation. Leading packages include Adobe FrameMaker, Adobe PageMaker, and QuarkXpress - Provides services for computer users, including receiving mail, sending mail, and storing messages. Leading software includes Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft Outlook Express, and Eudora Groupware - Increases the cooperation and joint productivity of small groups of co-workers Presentation graphics - Creates and enhances charts and graphs so that they are visually appealing and easily understood by an audience. A full-features presentation graphics package such as Lotus Freelance Graphics or Microsoft PowerPoint includes facilities for making a wide variety of charts and graphs and for adding titles, legends, and explanatory text anywhere in the chart of graph Programming - Possesses an artificial language consisting of a fixed vocabulary and a set of rules (called syntax) that programmers use to write computer programs. Leading programming languages include Java, C++, C#, and .NET Spreadsheet - Simulates an accountant’s worksheet onscreen and lets users embed hidden formulas that perform calculations on the visible data. Many spreadsheet programs also include powerful graphics and presentation capabilities to create attractive products. The leading spreadsheet application is Microsoft Excel Word processing - Transforms a computer into a tool for creating, editing, proofreading, formatting, and printing documents. Leading word processing applications include Microsoft Word and WordPerfect

Programming Languages
Human readable languages that must be translated into machine language that the computer can execute. Source code Object code Compiler Interpreter

Source code: Program instructions written in a high-level language (each statement generate multiple statements in machine language). Object code: program instructions that are translated into machine language (low level, consist of 1s and 0s). Compiler: Special system software that translates source code into object code in order to be executed by the computer. Interpreter: A special translator of source code into machine code that translates each source code statement into machine code and executes it one at a time (gives immediate feedback for errors).

Fourth Generation Languages: Sophisticated languages which enable end-users to perform programming tasks with little or no professional programmer assistance or that enhance the productivity of professional programmers. Query languages Report generators Graphics languages Application generators Very high-level programming languages

Query languages: Used for retrieving data from databases and files, which can support requests for information that are not predefined. Online and interactive. (SQL, RPG, Intellect) Report generators: Facilities for extracting data from files or databases to create reports in many formats. (SQL, RPG) Graphics languages: Facilities for displaying data from files or databases in graphic format. (Harvard Graphics) Application generators: Preprogrammed modules that can generate code for input, validation, processing, update and reporting when users provide specifications for an application. (SAS, CSP) Very high-level programming languages: Perform coding with far fewer instructions than conventional languages. (APL, Nomad)

Machine Language 19 - Clear accumulator Add contents of 202 to acc. Subtract contents of 203 from acc. Store accumulator to 201 Assembly Language cle - add B sub C sto A

3rd generation languages (procedural): A=B-C 4th generation languages (problem based): (FIND ad = “Ruya") 5th generation languages (natural language): (If sales is over quota then add 20% commission to salary)

APPENDIX A HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE BASICS

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APPENDIX A HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE BASICS

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