1. States of Consciousness

2. I. Sleep A. Circadian Rhythms: cycles of activity and inactivity
generally lasting about one day.
B. Shifting Sleep Schedules
1) Jet Lag: the period of weariness and discomfort that occurs
while your body clock is out of step with your new time zone.
2) Staying up late and shifting work
schedules…
3) Suprachiasmic Nucleus (SCN): tiny structure in the brain
that governs the circadian cycle of sleep and wakeful states.
The SCN controls the sleep-wake cycle in part by regulating the
secretion of the hormone melatonin by the pineal gland.

3. C. Why Do We Sleep?
1) Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep: the reason that
we sleep is to allow the body time to recover from the
exertions of the day.
2) Energy Conservation Theory (Evolutionary Theory):
evolution has equipped all animals with a regular pattern of
sleep and wakefulness to help us conserve energy and avoid
dangers.
D. Stages of Sleep
1) Rapid-Eye Movement (REM): the sleeper’s eyes are
moving rapidly around under the closed eyelids.

4. 2) Non-REM (NREM) Stages of Sleep
Stage 1: there is little eye movement, and a fair amount of
brain activity.
Stage 2: a gradual transition to slow brain wave deep sleep.
Stages 3 and 4: stages of even deeper sleep.
You gradually move back through stages 3 and 2 and
then have your first brief REM episode of the night.
(REM replaces stage 1 and then the cycle of stages
repeats).
A healthy adult has several minute sleep cycles
during the night.
The last sleep cycles of the night are usually comprised
of alternations between stage 2 and REM.

5. II. Dreaming A. Adults awakened during REM sleep report dreams
85-90% of the time.
B. Adults awakened during NREM sleep report dreams
50-60% of the time.
C. Children less than 5 years old rarely report any dreams.
D. Dreams appear to follow REM in length; 1 minute of
REM produces a brief dream, longer periods are
associated with more complex dream stories.

6. E. When people are deprived of only REM sleep
(experimenters will monitor sleepers and then wake them
up only during REM sleep), their brains will engage in
more REM sleep on subsequent nights. They will also be
irritable, anxious, distracted, and possibly hallucinate.
F. Infants get more REM sleep than children, and children get more than adults.

7. Manifest Content: the surface content of the dream.
G. Theories of Dreaming
1) Freud’s Theory…
Manifest Content: the surface content of the dream.
Latent Content: the hidden content, represented only in
symbols.
According to Freud, the meaning of the latent content can
only be determined via the dreamer’s associations to the
details of the manifest content.
2) Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreams: input from the
brainstem activates the brain during REM sleep. The cerebral
cortex tries to make sense of the random activity by imposing
a story on the stimuli that activate the sense organs during
this process.

8. 3) Neurocognitive Theory: the stronger the imagination of
the person when awake, the greater the chance of dreaming.
H. Lucid Dreaming: a dream state in which one is conscious
enough to recognize that one is in the dream state.

9. III. Abnormalities of Sleep
A. Insomnia: lack of sleep.
B. Sleep Apnea: the person may fail to breathe for a minute or
longer and wake up gasping for breath.
C. Narcolepsy: sudden attacks of extreme and irresistible
sleepiness during the day.
D. Sleep Talking: is not a symptom of any mental or
emotional disorder.
E. Sleep Walking: is usually found in children.

10. F. Sleep Hallucinations: an individual opens their eyes
during sleep and will see people or objects that aren’t
physically present.
G. Sleep Terrors: involve waking up during slow-wave sleep
in an extreme panic.
H. Restless Leg Syndrome: prolonged “crawly” sensations
in the legs, accompanied by strong repetitive leg movements
that can wake the sleeper.
I. Hypersomnia: excessive sleep that is unrefreshing.

11. IV. Hypnosis: a condition of increased
suggestibility that occurs in the context of a
special hypnotist-subject relationship.
A. How do you induce hypnosis?
B. Uses and limitations of hypnosis…
1) Increased relaxation.
2) Better concentration.
3) Temporary changes in behavior that sometimes persist
beyond the end of the hypnotic state.
4) It will NOT give a person new mental or physical
abilities, like enhancing memory or lifting up automobiles.

12. C. Posthypnotic Suggestion: a suggestion to do or
experience something particular after coming out of hypnosis.
D. Distortions of perception can occur under hypnosis.
E. Is hypnosis an altered state of consciousness?
F. Meditation: a method of inducing a calm, relaxed state
through the use of special techniques.

13. V. Drugs: operate at the synaptic level. They
can increase the release of neurotransmitters,
block reuptake, or directly stimulate or block
receptors.
A. Stimulants: drugs that boost energy, heighten alertness,
increase activity and produce a pleasant feeling.
B. Depressants: drugs that largely decrease physiological
arousal.
1) Alcohol: a class of chemicals including methanol, ethanol,
and propyl (rubbing) alcohol.
2) Tranquilizers: make people relax and possibly fall asleep.

14. C. Narcotics: drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to
pain, and overall decreased responsiveness to environmental
Stimuli (ex. morphine, heroin).
1) Opiates: can be derived naturally from the opium poppy or
synthesized in the laboratory.
D. Hallucinogens: drugs that induce sensory distortions and
false sensory experiences.
1) Peyote: a naturally derived hallucinogen.
2) LSD: a hallucinogen that is artificially manufactured.
3) Ecstasy: acts as a stimulant at low doses and a
hallucinogen at high doses.
E. Marijuana: intensifies sensory experiences and has a
calming effect or sometimes an arousing effect.

15. VI. Chronic Drug Effects
A. Withdrawal: an unpleasant effect, the opposite of how
a drug made the user feel initially.
B. Tolerance: a decrease in effect develops as the user
continues to take the drug.
C. Physical Dependence: when the user feels compelled to
use a drug chiefly to reduce the unpleasant withdrawal
symptoms.
D. Psychological Dependence: a craving to use a drug not
motivated by the physical symptoms of withdrawal.