1. Modern homo sapiens sapiens
ANA 215

2. In the beginning… 7.0mya Toumaï
6.0 mya Tugen Hills – Orrorin tugenensis
mya Australopithecus afarensis
3.7 – 3.3 mya Australopithecus africanus
mya Australopithecus robustus
1.75 mya Australopithecus bosei
In this course we have reviewed the time span of human evolution from the earliest hominid to ourselves, homo
sapien sapiens. Before, we begin to look at the earliest homo sapiens, we will first briefly review the hominids which lead up to the emergence of our species (ourselves). The earliest hominids have been found in Africa – both, East, South and West. None of these early hominids have been found outside of Africa. Therefore, there is consensus that Africa was the birthplace of mankind.
To be classified as an hominid, these early species had to be bipedal or at least spend most of their time engaging in bipedal behavior. Skeletal changes as a consequence of bipedality occurred in the skull (foramen magnum), vertebrae (curves kyphosis and lordosis), pelvis, femora and the foot.

3. Australopithecines
The evidence for bipedality for Toumai and the individuals from Tugen Hills is still debatable. However, the discovery and excavation of the Laetoli footprints in Tanzazia was convincing proof that Australopithecines were efficient bipeds; even though they may have also spent a considerable amount of time in the trees.
The early Australopithecines were small in stature and size.
They had small brains relatively to individuals classified within the genus Homo.
Another primitive feature was that the first hallux (or big toe) was not entirely in line with the other toes.
Other primitive characteristics of Australopithecines included:
Large canines
Sectorial lower first premolar
Canine diastema
Thick dental enamel.
The Australopithecines have been seen as ominivores, who lived mainly off fruits and plant material. When possible, they probably scavenged meat from carnivores. They did not have a tool assemblages (or at least one has not been found with the Australopithecine skeletal remains).

4. Homo habilis?
Around 2.4 to 2.0 mya years ago in both East and South Africa, fossil evidence has shown the emergence of another more gracile and larger brain hominid with a tool assemblage known as the Olduvai toolkit.
Leakey suggested that these hominids, and not australopithecines, were on the line towards modern humans.
The Olduvai toolkit is believed to be associated with Homo habilis. Thereby suggesting that the making and using of tools is a unique human traits. (since tool assemblages were not found with Australopithecines). In East Africa, it is
Possible that early homo was living contemporaneously with australopithecines.
Some researcher suggest that Homo habilis is simply variation within the Australopithecine genus, and that Australopithecines eventually evolved into Homo (erectus).

5. Homo erectus (1.8 – 400,000)
1.6 – 1.8 mya – Homo erectus sites in Europe (Dmansi) and East Africa (Narikotome).
Acheulian tool assemblages - biface
The earliest evidence of Homo erectus has been found in Europe in the Republic of Georgia and East Africa.
This clearly suggests that hominids had migrated out of Africa before 1.6 mya. Therefore, it is possible that Homo
Habilis was the first to leave Africa and not Homo erectus.
Homo erectus had a unique cranial morphology (see skull): Large brow ridges, Low forehead, Nuchal torus, Sagittal ridge (keel), Broad at the base, shovel shaped incisors.
Evidence suggests that Homo erectus (like his predessecors Homo habilis and Australopithecines) was an opportunistic scavenger and did not consume meat regularly. The possible use of fire by homo erectus is debatable.
A unique Acheulian tool kit is associated with Homo erectus. In this tool kit was the

6. Biface

7. Early archaics/Neandertals
Transitional forms in Africa, Asia and Europe
Brain expansion, reduction in tooth size, more advanced tool culture, evidence of hunting, use of fire and burials in the late archaic
These early archaic homo sapiens were a mixture homo erectus and modern homo sapien characteristics.

8. Neandertal speech?

9. Modern humans Cranial morphology
Rapid increase in technology and social developments
Where did they originate?
How did they spread out into the rest of the Old World?
The modern humans are seen as our direct kin. They were similar to us skeletally, genetically and possibly behaviorally.
The period of anatomically modern humans is also associated with a rapid increase in technology and social developments such that tool technologies become more refined.

10. Objectives Cranial morphology of modern h.s.s.
Two theories pertaining to their origins
Cultural adaptations: tool use and art
The objectives of this lecture is to assess the cranial morphology of hss and to discuss two theories pertaining to their origin. We will then look at cultural adaptations such as their use of tools and art.

11. Cranial morphology Vertical forehead Reduced browridge
Pyramidal mastoid process
Canine fossa
Definite chin
Anatomically modern humans are primarily defined by their cranial morphology. They hominids had a much larger brain relative to their body size.
The emergence of anatomically modern humans is a controverisal topic and several theories have been proposed with regards to the emergence of our direct species. The most prominent of these theories is the Out of Africa hypothesis and the multi-regional evolution hypothesis.

12. Out of Africa hypothesis
Origin in Africa
Klasies River Mouth, Border Cave
Replaced hominids in Asia and Europe
Support from mtDNA – mitochondrial Eve
This theory proposed that modern humans originated in Africa around 200,000 years ago. Currently, Africa is the
Continent with the oldest anatomical modern human fossils, which have been found in Southern Africa at Klasies River Mouth and Border Cave.
This theory suggests that the anatomically modern humans were mentally superior and biological different from modern hominid forms. Therefore, they suggest that anatomically modern humans were a separate species and thus there could be no admixture between anatomically modern humans and archaic homo sapiens in Europe and Asia.
The largest support for this theory comes from mtDNA. Several scientist from the University of Berkeley took mtDNA sample from several modern populations and was able to trace the mtDNA from these samples back to a single African lineage. However, other scientists were able to construct similar trees from the data and showed that modern homo sapiens could have originated in Asia not Africa. Therefore, the efficacy of using mtDNA to trace back into the genetic tree of early homo sapiens is still debatable. Many scientists have dropped the theory altogether while other genetists are looking into tracing the Y chromosomes and nuclear DNA.

13. photo

14. Multi-regional evolution
Milford Wolpoff, University of Michigan
Evolution of anatomically modern humans occurred simultaneously in different regions
Gene flow, migration and selection = prevented speciation
The theory of multi-regional evolution suggests that many of the populations of archaic homo sapins evolved into anatomically modern humans separately (in different regions).
How is it possible for this to occur, separately but with similar morphology in all anatomically modern humans.
Deny that the earliest modern humans arose in exclusively in Africa.
Gene flow and migration occurred between archaic populations such that modern populations could not be considered separate from archaic forms.
Wolpoff and colleagues suggest that early forms of anatomically modern humans did not occur exclusively in Africa.
They challenge the notion of complete replacement of archaic forms with anatomically modern individuals.
The local populations, however, would not have evolved independently. Mixture of genes between populations and selection would have prevented speciation.

15. Partial replacement model
Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa around 100,000 ya
Migrate into Europe and Asia
Interbreed and replace the archaic homo sapiens
The third (or partial replacement model) suggests that anatomically modern humans appearred in Africa, first. They migrated into Europe and Asia and either interbred or replaced the archaic h.s.s.

16. South Africa Klasies River Mouth 120,000 to 80,000 years ago
Klasies river mouth is South Africa is one of the earliest sites known for the presence of anatomically modern humans. Philip Tobias suggests that this site adds additional evidence for the out of Africa hypothesis (which suggests that anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa and spread to the rest of the world and replaced archaic homo sapiens). Border Cave (to the North of Klasies) and Omo Kibish 1 in Ethiopia.
However, it is debated whether these are the oldest anatomically modern humans or whether these are the oldest anatomically modern humans to have been found.

17. Near East Skhūl Cave, Mt Carmel, Israel Qafzeh Cave, Israel
115,000 years ago
10 individuals
Qafzeh Cave, Israel
100,000 years ago
20 individuals
Anatomically modern humans have also been found in the Near East at both the Skhul and Qafzeh Caves.
They data to approximately 100,000 to 115,000 years ago. Some of the specimens from Skhul which showsshow Neanderthal features.
It is possible that these two sites were contemporaries with the Neandertals remains that have been found at Tabun (near Israel)
Furthermore, it should be pointed out that Neandertal remains had been found at Tabun Cave (also in Israel) which is near the Skhul and Qafzeh caves and suggests that these individuals would have been contemporaneous.

18. Central Europe Mladeč, Czech Republic Vindija, Croatia
33, 000 years ago
Both Neandertal and modern human features
Admixture between Neandertals and modern humans was also observed in fossils from central Europe such as Mladec in the Czech Republic and Vindija in Croatia. Evidence of admixture (or at least a mixture of features from archaic and modern homo sapiens) renders support for the theory of regional continuity (or multi-regional evolution).
The combination of Neandertal and modern homo sapien features may indicate gene flow between the two groups. This admixture was also evident in other populations in Southern France and Spain.

19. Southern France Cro-Magnon site 30,000 ya 8 individuals
Old Man (Cro-Magnon 1)
Gracile traits indicative of anatomically modern humans.
The Cro-Magnon site in France dates to approximately 30,000 years ago are the earliest of France’s anatomically modern humans. These individuals had an Aurignacian tool assemblage – which is an Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry.
The most famous of the skeletons from the Cro-Magnon site in Southern France is the Old Man or Cro-Magnon 1.
This individual

20. Spain Abrigo do Lagar Velho 4 year old child skeleton 24,500 ya
Most compelling evidence for the multi-regional theory
The child skeleton from Portogal may provide some of the best evidence of possible hybridization between neanders and hss.
The teeth, lower jaw, and pelvis of the child was similar to hss.
No chin, limb proportions and muscle insertions were more similar to Neandertals.

21. Asia Zhoukoudian Jinniushan Upper late Pleistocene: 18,000 – 10,000 ya
Supports the idea of regional continuity instead of complete replacement
Possible earliest anatomically modern human in China dates to 200,000 ya. If this date is correct, it supports the multi-regional evolutionary theory more so than the theory which suggests complete replacement.

22. Australia Lake Mungo 30,000-25,000 ya
Australia may have been inhabited as early as 50,000 years ago. It has been suggested that Bamboo rafts were used to cross from one island to another.
Debate continues on the actually “ancientness” of the remains from Lake Mungo which have been dated to between 30,000 and 25,000 years ago. Some individuals say that the remains are not ancient (with modern dna). Therefore further collboration must be obtained between the DNA and the dating techniques.

23. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 y.a.)
Around 30,000 years ago, we begin to see a change in climate and an increase in temperature. Melting of the glaciers. Climate change brings about an increase in grassland, which in turn…calls more herbivores and carnivores down to the tundra and steppe. Hunters paradise. During this time, western Europe and perhaps portions of Africa achieve the highest population density of humans since the beginning of their evolution.
The greatest predator to animals became humans and their sophisticated hunting techniques.
Cultural innovations such as sewn clothing (evidence of this from awl or bone needles). Clothing and fire allowed people to spread into more harsh environments (such as eastern most Europe and northern Asia). Awls were first noted at least 19,000 years ago.
Homo sapiens sapiens were able to adapt to changes in climate via sophisticated technology as well as components of culture. Humans were using their intelligence to adapt to changes in environmental conditions. (whereas previously Australopithecines were isolated in a particular cultural niches…now modern humans were able to invade several different niches).

24. Cultural periods Chatelperronian/Aurignacian – 40,000 ya
Gravettian – 27,000 ya
Solutrean – 21,000 ya
Magdalenian – 17,000 ya
The five cultural periods are based on changes in the stone tool technologies.
It was during the Magdalenian period that we see the most advancements in cultural technologies.

25. Awl/bone needles (19,000 ya)
Humans were able to tolerate more harsh environments with the tailoring of clothing.
From many of the palaeolithic sites, stone tools such as awls and bone needles have been found.
Evidence of clothing has also been found in early sites from Moscow (22,000 years ago).

26. Solutrean blade
The Solutrean blades are seen as the most highly worked of any upper palaeolithic industry. It is possible that this blade was designed more for decoration than for actual use in hunting.
Solutrean blade was created from this pressure flaking technique which created parallel/flaked lance heads. Some of the points were quite delicate and appeared to be more for cultural aesthetics then ultilitarian function.

27. Burin
Similar to a scraper used to clean hides, a burin was used for carving designs on wood, antler and bone. This is one of the most common Upper Palaeolithic tools.
This tool could also be used for as a borer for drilling holes in skins, bones and shells.

28. Barbed harpoon

29. Atlatl (Magdalenian) Spear thrower
Atlatl were noted in the last stage of the upper paleolithic—the Magdalenian. This tool extended the hunters arm and thus enhanced the force and distance of a spear-throw.

31. Venus figurines
Venus figurines have been found in Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The reason behind these figures is not known. However, given the overemphasis on sexual characteristics (particular in the Venus of Willendorf) it is assumed that they may be related to fertility or other ritual purposes.

32. Cave Paintings
Cave art from Lascaux France depicting hunting scenes between man and beast. These paintings depict images of horse, bisons, reindeer, humans, owls, hyena and lions.

33. Art - Symbolism Is this symbolic or utilitarian? Cave paintings
Lascaux cave (Magdalenian)
Altamira (Magdalenian)
Grotte Chauvet (Aurignacian)
The cave paintings from Lascaux and Atlamira date to around 17,000 ya in the later phase of the stone age. Whereas the Grotte Chauvet dates to the Aurignacian or earlier part of the upper palaeolithic. The animals found at Grotte Chauvet are different from those at Altamira and Lascaux and include rhino, lion, bear, hyena, and and owl. The representation of human hands is also common at this site.
Early forms of rock art have also been seen in Africa – Nambia dating to between 28K and 38K years ago. Also ostrich egg shell beads were noted early on.
The upper palaeolithic can be seen as a culmination of 2 million years of cultural development.

34. Summary
Anatomically modern human: Africa, Near East, Europe, Asia, and Australia
Anatomically modern human: Near East and Europe admixed with archaic features

35. Summary
Harsh climate: advanced tool technology
Adaptation: culture