1. Learning

2. Learning can be considered any modification of behavior that is due to experience
Learning can affect instinctive behaviors

3. Imprinting
Imprinting is learning that is restricted to a specific time period (sensitive period) and is irreversible
Most well known example of imprinting is from greylag geese

4. Imprinting is not only limited to newborns

5. Bird Song
Songbirds (Order Passeriformes) are a main subject of study for those interested in learning
The result of study into how birds learn their songs has shown that learning methods vary from species to species
Bird songs also illustrate the importance of both environmental and genetic factors

6. The white crowned sparrow has a sensitive period for song development during the first 50 days (to taped recordings)

7. After learning a template song it is necessary for the sparrow to attempt to sing its own song. Comparisons of its own song to its template song help improve the efficacy of its song.

8. However the white crowned sparrow has shown a longer sensitive period when presented with live models to copy
When presented with another bird and allowed to socially interact, sparrows may learn the songs of another species.

9. Human language learning also seems to have a critical period
While possible for humans to learn new languages at any age, foreign languages are most easily learned by the teen years

10. Variation exists in song learning
The Eastern phoebe can learn songs even after being deafened

11. Not all birds learn a song at one critical period
Canaries learn a different song every year
Canary brains atrophy when not learning new songs

12. Conditioning
Classical conditioning – arbitrary stimulus associated with reward or punishment (Pavlov), usually dealing with reflex responses
Operant conditioning – associate their own behavior with reward or punishment (Skinner)

14. Play
What is the ultimate cause of playing?

15. Possibilities:
Exercise
Building social roles
Practice of needed skills

16. Cognition
Cognition – ability to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered from the senses
Studying cognition also poses many questions about consciousness.

19. Anthropomorphizing
Anthropomorphizing is a potential danger in animal research behavior research
Often we are tempted to apply human emotions and thoughts to animals
Applying human emotion takes us out of the role of observation and into the role of speculation, often causing us to miss what is really happening.
Anthropomorphizing has been called “the worst of ethological sins.”

20. Most scientists avoid anthropomorphizing, but some such as Jane Goodall and Donald Griffin have argued that animals do display consciousness.
In his book The Nesting Season, Bernt Heinrich asks the question: If we are not willing to call a pair bond facilitated by serotonin and oxytocin “love” when its shown in birds, what are we to call it?
One criticism asserts that by making anthropomorphism taboo, we instead run the risk of anthropocentrism.

22. Cognitive mechanisms and movement: Taxis and Kinesis
Taxis – movement towards (positive) or away (negative) from some stimulus
Kinesis – Increase (positive) or decrease (negative) in movement due to a stimulus, non- directional. A more automatic behavior than taxis.

23. Cognitive mechanisms and movement:: Landmarks

24. Cognitive Maps

25. Migration is regular movement over long distances
Piloting – one landmark to another
Orienting – detection of compass direction (either by magnetic detection, polarized light, sun position, or starmap
Navigation – determine compass direction and location.