1. Lect.: MANIRAGUHA Michael
Chapter 1
Accounting: The Language
of Business
Lect.: MANIRAGUHA Michael

2. Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain how accounting information assists in making decisions.
Describe the components of the balance sheet.
Analyze business transactions and relate them to changes in the balance sheet.
Compare features of proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations.

3. Accounting Concept
The basic concepts of accounting as we understand them today were first published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli ( ) He described them in a section of his book on applied mathematics entitled Summa de Arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et Proportionalita. Pacioli was a Franciscan Monk whose life and work was dedicated to the glory of God.

4. Introduction
Accounting - a process of identifying, recording, summarizing, and reporting economic information to decision makers in the form of financial statements
Financial accounting - focuses on the specific needs of decision makers external to the organization, such as stockholders, suppliers, banks, and government agencies

5. The Nature of Accounting
The accounting system is a series of steps performed to analyze, record, quantify, accumulate, summarize, classify, report, and interpret economic events and their effects on an organization and to prepare the financial statements.

6. The Nature of Accounting
Accounting systems are designed to meet the needs of the decisions makers who use the financial information.
Every business has some sort of accounting system.
These accounting systems may be very complex or very simple, but the real value of any accounting system lies in the information that the system provides.

7. Users of accounting information
Accounting information is useful to anyone who makes decisions that have economic results.
Managers want to know if a new product will be profitable.
Owners want to know which employees are productive.
Investors want to know if a company is a good investment.
Creditors want to know if they should extend credit, how much to extend, and for how long.
Government regulators want to know if financial statements conform to requirements.
Tax inspectors. They need it to be able to calculate the taxes payable.

8. Users of accounting information (Cont)
The bank. If the owner wants to borrow money for use in the business, then the bank will need such information.

9. Accounting as an Aid to Decision Making
Fundamental relationships in the decision-making process:
Accountant’s
analysis &
recording
Financial
Statements
Event
Users

10. Financial and Management Accounting
The major distinction between financial and management accounting is the users of the information.
Financial accounting serves external users.
Management accounting serves internal users, such as top executives, management, and administrators within organizations.

11. Financial and Management Accounting
The primary questions about an organization’s success that decision makers want to know are: What is the financial picture of the organization on a given day? How well did the organization do during a given period?

12. Financial and Management Accounting
Annual report - a document prepared by management and distributed to current and potential investors to inform them about the company’s past performance and future prospects.
The annual report is one of the most common sources of financial information used by investors and managers.

13. Financial and Management Accounting
Accountants answer these primary questions with three major financial statements.
Balance Sheet - financial picture on a given day
Income Statement - performance over a given period
Statement of Cash Flows - performance over a given period

14. The reasons why businesses keep accounts for these users can therefore be summarized as:
1. To comply with legal and other requirements e.g. Stock Exchange listing rules.
2. To provide information for stakeholders about financial performance and viability.
3. To provide managers with information for decision making.
4. To provide a structure to business activity based on the careful processing of numerical data.

15. Qualitative characteristics of Financial Information
Qualities of Useful Financial Information. The four principal qualities of useful financial information are understandability, relevance, reliability and comparability

16. Understandability
an essential quality of the information provided in the financial statements is that it is readily understandable by users. For these reason users are assumed to have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting.

17. Relevance
information has the quality of being relevant when it influences the economic decisions of users by helping them evaluate past, present or future events or confirming or correcting their past evaluations. The relevance of information is affected by its nature and materiality.

18. Reliability
information is useful when it is free from material error and bias and can be depended upon by users to represent faithfully that which it purports to represent or could reasonably be expected to represent. To be reliable then the information should:
Be represented faithfully,
Be accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality and not merely their legal form,
Be neutral i.e. free from bias,
Include some degree of caution especially where uncertainties surround some events and transactions (prudence),
Be complete i.e. must be within the bounds of materiality and cost. An omission can cause information to be false.

19. Comparability
users must be able to compare the financial statements of an enterprise through time in order to identify trends in its financial position and performance. Users must also be able to compare the financial statements of different accounting policies, changes in the various policies and the effect of these changes in the accounts. Compliance with accounting standards also helps achieve this comparability.

20. Types of Ownership Three basic forms of ownership:
Sole proprietorships
Partnerships
Corporations

21. Types of Ownership Sole Proprietorship
A separate organization with a single owner
Tend to be small retail establishments and individual professional or service business - for example, a single dentist, attorney, or public accountant
The sole proprietorship is an individual entity that is separate and distinct from the owner.

22. Types of Ownership Partnership
An organization that joins two or more individuals who act as co-owners
Dentists, doctors, attorneys, and accountants tend to conduct their activities as partnerships. Some can be large international firms.
The partnership is an individual entity that is separate and distinct from each of the partners.

23. Types of Ownership Corporation
An “artificial entity” created under state laws
Corporations have limited liability - corporate creditors have claims against corporate assets only.
Individual investors are at risk only up to the amount they have invested in the corporation. Creditors cannot hold investors liable for the corporation’s debts.

24. Types of Ownership Corporation
Owners are called shareholders or stockholders.
Publicly owned vs. privately owned corporations
Public - Shares in the ownership are sold to the public on a stock exchange; the corporation can have many thousands of shareholders.
Private - Shares in the ownership are owned by families, small groups of shareholders, and shares are not sold to the public.

25. Types of Ownership Management by the owners:
Sole proprietorship - The owner is an active manager in day-to-day operation of the business.
Partnership - Partners are usually active managers in day-to-day operations of the business.
Corporation - Shareholders usually do not participate in the day-to-day operations of the business.

26. Advantages and Disadvantages of Forms of Ownership
Corporations
Advantages
limited liability
easy transfer of ownership - shares of stock can be bought and sold easily (stock exchanges)
ease of raising ownership capital - many potential stockholders
continuity of existence - life of the corporation continues even if its ownership changes

27. Advantages and Disadvantages of Forms of Ownership
Corporations
Disadvantages
possibility of double taxation - corporation pays tax at the entity level and its owners pay taxes on distributions of earnings to them

28. Advantages and Disadvantages of Forms of Ownership
Proprietorships and Partnerships
Advantages
no taxation at the entity level - income of sole proprietorship and partnership is attributed to the owners as individual taxpayers

29. Advantages and Disadvantages of Forms of Ownership
Proprietorships and Partnerships
Disadvantages
unlimited liability - creditors of the business can look to the owners’ personal assets for repayment
not easy to transfer ownership
not easy to raise ownership capital - few, if any individuals interested in a particular proprietorship or partnership
no continuity of existence - changes in ownership terminate the proprietorship or partnership

30. CONVENTIONS REGARDING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
The conventions of financial accounting are particularly significant to the development of accounting theory in two ways:
· They are themselves part of an empirical process for developing rules of financial accounting. They may be regarded as belonging to the body of accounting theory.
· They reflect the influence of institutional forces which shape the philosophy of accounting in a given economic and social environment.

31. Accounting concepts
Textbooks refer variously to accounting principles, accounting postulates, accounting concepts, accounting imperatives and accounting assumptions to describe those basic points of agreement on which financial accounting theory and practice are founded

32. 1. The historical cost concept
The need for this has already been described. It means that assets are normally shown at cost price, and that this is the basis for valuation of the asset.

33. 2. The money measurement concept
Accounting information has traditionally been concerned only with those facts covered by (a) and (b) which follow:
(a) It can be measured in money, and
(b) Most people will agree to the money value of the transition.

34. 3. The business entity concept
This concept implies that the affairs of a business are to be treated as being quite separate from the non-business activities of its owner (s). The items recorded in the books of the business are therefore restricted to the transactions of the business.
No matter what activities the proprietor (s) gets up to outside the business, they are completely disregarded in the books kept by the business. The only time that the personal resources of the proprietor (s) affect the accounting records of a business is when they introduce new capital into the business, or take drawings out of it.

35. 4. The dual aspect concept
This states that there are two aspects of accounting, one represented by the assets of the business and the other by the claims against them. The concept states that these two aspects are always equal to each other. In other words:
Assets = Capital + Liabilities

36. 5. The time interval concept
One of the underlying principles of accounting is that final accounts are prepared at regular intervals of one year. For interval management purposes they may be prepared far more frequently, possibly on a monthly basis or even more frequently.