1. The bohr atom bound in cloth
Literary Exposition of Quantum Theory in Popular Science Books,
Kristian H. Nielsen
Centre for Science Studies
Ny Munkegade 120, 1520
DK-8000 Århus C
Denmark

2. Historiography of popular science
Who’s afraid of ”popular science”?
”An unworkable analytical category” (Topham 1998; Secord 2004)
Used in a derogative way to denigrate popular books, articles etc.
Used to legimitize science as the only way of knowing about the world
The canonical account of ”popular science”
In the distant past, science and the public were intimate and entangled
Progressively, science has shed and disciplined its publics
Today, we know (we think) who is a scientist and who is a lay person

3. Historiography of popular science
Let’s invent other terms!
Expository science: Forms and functions (Shinn & Whitley 1985)
Continuum of expository practices: referent, imagery, argument
Science communication
Let’s historicize ”popular science”!
Analyze the social and rhetorical dimensions of ”technical” vs. ”popular”
Struggles to define ”popular science”
Ambiguities and complexities exhibited by ”popular science”

4. Historiography of popular science
The rise of popular science in the 19th century
Professionalization of science
The construction of the public as mass of consumers and ”chatterers”
The popular science ”boom” in the early 20th century
Publishers seeking/creating audiences based on product differentiation
Range of books & pamphlets for different audiences at different prices
Scientists promoting the big picture
Atomic physics, cosmology, relativity, evolution, science and industry, etc.

5. quantum theory in books 1918-1925
Graetz, L. (1918). Die Atomtheorie in ihrer neuesten Entwicklung: Sechs Vorträge. Stuttgart: Verlag von J. Engelhorns Nachf.
Sommerfeld, A. (1919). Atombau und Spektrallinien. Braunschweig: Durck und Verlag von Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn
Crehore, A. C. (1920). The Atom. New York: D. Van Nostrand company
Holst, H., & Kramers, H. A. (1922). Bohrs Atomteori, almenfatteligt fremstillet. Copenhagen: Gyldendal
Kirchberger, P. (1922a). Atom- und Quantentheorie. Leipzig.
Kirchberger, P. (1922b). Die Entwicklung der Atomtheorie. Karlsruhe: Druck and Verlag C. F. Müllersche Hofbuchhandlung.
Russell, B. (1923). The ABC of Atoms. London: Kegan Paul & Co
Andrade, E. N. d. C. (1923). The Structure of the Atom. London: G. Bell & Sons
Sullivan, J. W. N. (1923). Atoms and Electrons. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Campbell, N. R. (1923). The Structure of the Atom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lodge, O. (1924). Atoms and Rays: An Introduction to Modern Views on Atomic Structure and Radiation. London: Ernest Benn Ltd

6. N-Grams for atom, quantum, bohr

7. N-Grams for atom, quantum, bohr, relativity, einstein

8. N-Grams for atom, quantum, bohr, relativity, einstein, dada, duchamp

9. Planetary model of the atom
“Just as in the solar system, the general movement of the electrons around the nucleus forms an ellipse, the focus of which is the nucleus, but these “Kepler ellipses” are only available in a limited and discrete number and, on the basis of quantum theoretical calculations, are arithmetically characterized by fixed eccentricities and major semiaxes.” (Sommerfeld 1919, p. 68)
“An atom is found to be a sort of solar system, with sun and planets; the empty regions between the sun and the planets fill up vastly more space than they do, so that the greater part of the volume that seems to us to be filled by a solid body is really unoccupied.” (Russell 1923, p. 16)

10. Attractiveness of the planetary model
Ontological coherence
Similarity between structure of the universe and structure of the atom
A nice and simple mental picture
Iconic representation of the atom

11. Attractiveness of the planetary model
Ontological coherence
Similarity between structure of the universe and structure of the atom
A nice and simple mental picture
Iconic representation of the atom

12. Attractiveness of the planetary model
Ontological coherence
Similarity between structure of the universe and structure of the atom
A nice and simple mental picture
Iconic representation of the atom
Epistemological certainty
Science will progress!
By means of experiment and mathematics

13. The advent of a new ”newtonian age”
“To many of us it appears that we are certainly living in a Keplerian age: that is to say, in an age when all sorts of hypotheses are put forward, and are being compared with experiment and observation to see if they hold good, and even if their rationale is not at the time understood, and although they may have to wait, for full explanation, for the Newtonian age which in process of time ought to follow. Some of us have even suggested that a Newtonian age is beginning now; not because any one man is of the magnitude of Newton, but because there are so many men well equipped with mathematical methods of investigation, and standing on the shoulders of the great men of the past.” (Lodge 1924, p. V)

14. acoustic analogies
”An atom cannot emit or absorb any kind of vibration, but ii can emit and absorb a vibration of the right kind in a surprisingly efficient manner with consequences that were unexpected, and which still cannot fully be accounted for.”
”If we now imagine an assemblage of quiescent tuning-forks of different sizes, and a sound wave falls upon the aassemblage, only those forks will vibrate which are in tune with the wave—that is, which have the same frequency—and from them the pellets will be thrown off; but until the right frequency is reached, nothing happens.” (Lodge 1923, p )

15. acoustic analogies
”If we try to illustrate the matter [atomic structure] with an analogy from the theory of sound, we can do so by comparing the atom not with a stringed instrument, but with a hypothetical musical instrument of a wholly different kind. Let us imagine that we have placed one over another and concentrically a series of circular dics of progressively smaller radii, and the let us suppose that a small sphere can move around any one of these without friction and without emitting sound. In such a motion the system may be said to be in a ”stationary state.” (Kramers and Holst 1923, p. 120)

16. acoustic analogies
”Sooner or later the sphere may fall from the first disc on to one lower down and continue to roll around on the second, having emitted sound, let us assume, by its fall. By passing thur from one stationary state to another it loses an quantity of energy equal to the work which would be necessary to raise it again to the disc previously occupied, and to bring it back to the original state of motion. We can assume that the energy which is lost in the fall reappears in a sound wave emitted by the instrument, and that the pitch of the sound emitted is proportional to the energy sent out. If, moreover, we imagine that the lowermost disc is grooved in such a way that the sphere cannot fall farther, then this fanciful instrument can provide a very rough analogy with the Bohr atom. We must beware, however, of stretching the analogy farther than is here indicated.” (Kramers and Holst 1923, p. 120)

17. The staircase model
” Think of a marble rolling down a circular staircase, like a conical pyramid cut into steps. When it comes to the edge of a step, it tumbles over and acquires speed in its descent, so that it is moving more rapidly than before, but when it strikes, there is a noise and some of the energy is lost. If the marble was running round the steps in a sort of spiral, if the risers between the steps increased in depth from the top downwards, and if it could bounce over some of the steps, then we would have a very rough and unsatisfactory model, but one which does suggest a discontinuous kind of fall, and also the emission of radiant energy in the form of sound or vibration every time there is an impact.” (Lodge 1923, p )

18. the ”human” atom
“The nucleus of any atom except hydrogen is a tight little system, which may be compared to a family of energetic people engaged in a perpetual family quarrel. In radio-activity some members of the family emigrate, and it is found that the energy they used to spend in quarrels at home is sufficient to govern an empire. If this source of energy can be utilized commercially, it will probably in time supersede every other.” (Russell 1923, p. 14)
“An electron is like a man who, when he is insulted, listens at first apparently unmoved, and then suddenly hits out.” (Russell 1923, p. 63)

19. Reconciling quantum theory with everyday experience
“To the eye or to the touch, ordinary matter appears to be continuous; our dinner-table or the chairs on which we sit, seem to present an unbroken surface. We think that if there were too many holes the chairs would not be safe to sit on. Science, however, compels us to accept a quite different conception of what we are pleased to call “solid matter”; it is, in fact, something much more like the Irishman’s definition of a net, “a number of holes tied together with pieces of string.” Only it would be necessary to image the strings cut away until only the knots were left.” (Russell 1923, p. V)

20. Metaphors for quanta
“A block or a pillar set up on a table can be upset by a critical force applied to it horizontally, but any force less than that need not cause any disturbance.”
“Or take an explosive substance, say gunpowder. A spark of sufficient suddenness will ignite it and produce a violent result. A stronger spark will do no more, but an unsuitable spark of flame will do nothing.
“Or take an example from agriculture. A seed thrown in the ground will germinate and produce a bush or tree of appropriate size. But half a seed would presumably decay and produce nothing. Indeed, seeds may be said to exist in quanta.” (Lodge 1923, p )

21. Metaphors for quanta
“Again, a clock gives the time in quanta. The hands of the clock do not move continuously, but in jerks.”
“The heavenly bodies are obviously discontinuous. There must be some reason, which indeed has been partly ascertained, why matter is distributed in the large masses that we call stars and not aggregated into one great lump by reason of gravitational attraction.” (Lodge 1923, p. 137)

22. Literary ”clothing” of the bohr atom
Scientists’ perceived lack of interest in popularization
“once a statement has been properly formulated there is no need of repetition, no need for full discussion and exposition of it in all its bearings” (Lodge 1923, p. vi)
The Bohr atom exposed and discussed in many ways
Degree of mathematization (technicality)
Linguistic experiments with literary exposition of the Bohr Atom and Quantum Theory

23. Thanks! Kristian H. Nielsen Center for Science Studies
Ny Munkegade 120, 1520
DK-8000 Århus C
Denmark