1. Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten
Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
St. Peters, MO
 2006, Prentice Hall, Inc.

2. Atomic Theory of Matter
The theory that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter reemerged in the early 19th century, championed by John Dalton.
Figure 2.1 John Dalton ( )

3. Dalton’s Postulates
Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

4. Dalton’s Postulates
All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other properties, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

5. Dalton’s Postulates
Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

6. Dalton’s Postulates
Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.

7. Law of Constant Composition Joseph Proust (1754–1826)
Also known as the law of definite proportions.
The elemental composition of a pure substance never varies.

8. Multiple Proportions

9. Multiple Proportions

10. Law of Conservation of Mass
The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of substances present before the process took place.

11. a.
the law of conservation of matter
the law of multiple proportions
the law of constant composition
the law of conservation of grams

12. a.
the law of conservation of matter
the law of multiple proportions
the law of constant composition
the law of conservation of grams

13. b.
The second compound must have twice as many oxygen atoms per carbon atom as the first compound.
The second compound must have half as many oxygen atoms per carbon atom as the first compound.
The second compound contains half as many carbon atoms as the first compound.
The first compound contains half as many carbon atoms as the second compound.

14. b.
The second compound must have twice as many oxygen atoms per carbon atom as the first compound.
The second compound must have half as many oxygen atoms per carbon atom as the first compound.
The second compound contains half as many carbon atoms as the first compound.
The first compound contains half as many carbon atoms as the second compound.

15. The Electron
Figure 2.4
Streams of negatively charged particles were found to emanate from cathode tubes.
J. J. Thompson is credited with their discovery (1897).

16. The Electron
Figure 2.4
Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/g.

17. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of either the charge or the mass of an electron would yield the other.
Figure 2.5

18. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Robert Millikan (University of Chicago) determined the charge on the electron in 1909.
Figure 2.5

19. Radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiation by an atom.
First observed by Henri Becquerel.
Also studied by Marie and Pierre Curie.

20. Radioactivity
Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest Rutherford:
 particles
 particles
 rays
Figure 2.8

21. The Atom, circa 1900: “Plum pudding” model, put forward by Thompson.
Positive sphere of matter with negative electrons imbedded in it.
Figure 2.9

22. Discovery of the Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford shot  particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and observed the pattern of scatter of the particles.
Figure 2.10

23. The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thompson’s model could not be correct.
Figure 2.11

24. The Nuclear Atom
Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons around the outside of the atom.
Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.
Figure 2.12

25.  particles are scattered equally across a range of deflection angles due to the high density of the foil nuclei.
Most  particles pass through the foil without being deflected because most of the volume of the atoms that comprise the foil is empty space.
Most  particles are scattered at acute angles as they pass close to the foil nuclei.
Most  particles are deflected in a backwards direction from the foil due to the high density of the foil atom nuclei.

26.  particles are scattered equally across a range of deflection angles due to the high density of the foil nuclei.
Most  particles pass through the foil without being deflected because most of the volume of the atoms that comprise the foil is empty space.
Most  particles are scattered at acute angles as they pass close to the foil nuclei.
Most  particles are deflected in a backwards direction from the foil due to the high density of the foil atom nuclei.

27. Other Subatomic Particles
Protons were discovered by Rutherford in 1919.
Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

28. Subatomic Particles
Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a charge.
Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass.
The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
Table 2.1

29. Symbols of Elements
Elements are symbolized by one or two letters.

30. Atomic Number
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)

31. Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom.

32. Isotopes:
Atoms of the same element with different masses.
Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons. 11 6 C 12 6 C 13 6 C 14 6 C

33. a.
Cannot determine number of electrons without additional information.
The atom has 30 electrons.
The atoms has 15 electrons.
The atom has no electrons unless it is charged.

34. a.
Cannot determine number of electrons without additional information.
The atom has 30 electrons.
The atoms has 15 electrons.
The atom has no electrons unless it is charged.

35. b.
The protons reside in the nucleus of the atom.
The protons are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
The protons are dispersed with the electrons around the nucleus.
The protons reside in a shell just outside the nucleus.

36. b.
The protons reside in the nucleus of the atom.
The protons are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
The protons are dispersed with the electrons around the nucleus.
The protons reside in a shell just outside the nucleus.

37. Isotopes of Hydrogen

38. Atomic Mass
Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with great accuracy with a mass spectrometer.
Figure 2.13

39. Average Mass
Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use average masses in calculations.
Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances.

40. The 52.94 amu value and the 51.99 amu value represent two different isotopes of chromium.
The atomic weight of chromium is less than the mass of the specific chromium atom since atomic weights are used to describe neutral atoms.
The atomic weight of amu is for a different isotope than the amu mass.
The atomic weight of chromium (51.99 amu) is an average atomic mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of chromium.

41. The 52.94 amu value and the 51.99 amu value represent two different isotopes of chromium.
The atomic weight of chromium is less than the mass of the specific chromium atom since atomic weights are used to describe neutral atoms.
The atomic weight of amu is for a different isotope than the amu mass.
The atomic weight of chromium (51.99 amu) is an average atomic mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of chromium.

42. Periodic Table: A systematic catalog of elements.
Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.

43. Periodicity
When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a repeating pattern of reactivities.

44. Periodic Table The rows on the periodic chart are periods.
Columns are groups.
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

45. Groups
These five groups are known by their names.

46. Periodic Table
Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of H).

47. Periodic Table
Metalloids border the stair-step line (with the exception of Al and Po).

48. Periodic Table
Metals are on the left side of the chart.

49. a. C Cr Cl Co

50. a. C Cr Cl Co

51. b. 3rd and Group VIIA 2nd and Group VIA 2nd and Group VA
3rd and Group VIIIA

52. b. 3rd and Group VIIA 2nd and Group VIA 2nd and Group VA
3rd and Group VIIIA

53. c. 13 19 17 27

54. c. 13 19 17 27

55. d.
metal
nonmetal

56. d.
metal
nonmetal

57. Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound.

58. Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

59. Diatomic Molecules
These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms.
TO REMEMBER THEM:
Say to yourself, “HOFBrINCl”

60. Types of Formulas
Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.
Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound.

61. Types of Formulas
Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are bonded.
Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional array of atoms in a compound.

62. a. CH
CH3
CH6
C2H6

63. a. CH
CH3
CH6
C2H6

64. b. CH
CH3
C2H2
CH6

65. b. CH
CH3
C2H2
CH6

66. c. perspective model visual depth model ball and stick model
space-filling model

67. c. perspective model visual depth model ball and stick model
space-filling model

68. Ions When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.
Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic chart.
Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the periodic chart.

69. Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.

70. Writing Formulas
Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a compound this way:
The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion.
The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation.
If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.

71. Common Cations

72. Common Anions

73. The formula for calcium oxide is actually Ca2O.
The number of Ca2+ ions paired with O2– ions in a compound can vary.
Two Ca2+ ions can never be found in nature with an O2– ion.
We write empirical formulas for ionic compounds.

74. The formula for calcium oxide is actually Ca2O.
The number of Ca2+ ions paired with O2– ions in a compound can vary.
Two Ca2+ ions can never be found in nature with an O2– ion.
We write empirical formulas for ionic compounds.

75. Inorganic Nomenclature
Write the name of the cation.
If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic ion.
If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge as a Roman numeral in parentheses.

76. Inorganic Nomenclature

77. Calcium only appears as a 2+ ion in ionic compounds and hence needs no Roman numeral.
Roman numerals are always optional after the metal in ionic compounds.
Calcium oxide should also be named with a Roman numeral (II) after calcium.
Transition metals always require Roman numerals when in ionic compound names.

78. Calcium only appears as a 2+ ion in ionic compounds and hence needs no Roman numeral.
Roman numerals are always optional after the metal in ionic compounds.
Calcium oxide should also be named with a Roman numeral (II) after calcium.
Transition metals always require Roman numerals when in ionic compound names.

79. All three suffixes relate to the number of oxygens in an anion.
-ide is typically used for 1-anions, while -ate and -ite are for 2- and 3-anions respectively.
-ide usually means monoatomic anion and -ate and -ite signify differing numbers of oxygens in oxyanions (-ite anions have one less O atom than -ate anions)
-ide, -ate, and -ite convey information about the acid/base characteristics of anions.

80. All three suffixes relate to the number of oxygens in an anion.
-ide is typically used for 1-anions, while -ate and -ite are for 2- and 3-anions respectively.
-ide usually means monoatomic anion and -ate and -ite signify differing numbers of oxygens in oxyanions (-ite anions have one less O atom than -ate anions)
-ide, -ate, and -ite convey information about the acid/base characteristics of anions.

81. BO44– and SiO33–
BO33– and SiO44–
BO43– and SiO34–
BO34– and SiO43–

82. BO44– and SiO33–
BO33– and SiO44–
BO43– and SiO34–
BO34– and SiO43–

83. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite
NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
The one with more oxygens ends in -ate
NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

84. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite
ClO2− : chlorite
The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate
ClO3− : chlorate

85. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and ends in -ite
ClO− : hypochlorite
The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends in -ate
ClO4− : perchlorate

86. Acid Nomenclature
If the anion in the acid ends in -ide, change the ending to -ic acid and add the prefix hydro- :
HCl: hydrochloric acid
HBr: hydrobromic acid
HI: hydroiodic acid

87. Acid Nomenclature
If the anion in the acid ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid:
HClO: hypochlorous acid
HClO2: chlorous acid

88. Acid Nomenclature
If the anion in the acid ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid:
HClO3: chloric acid
HClO4: perchloric acid

89. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds
The less electronegative atom is usually listed first.
A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of each element in the compound (mono- is not used on the first element listed, however.)

90. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds
The ending on the more electronegative element is changed to -ide.
CO2: carbon dioxide
CCl4: carbon tetrachloride

91. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds
If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of the element begins with a vowel, the two successive vowels are often elided into one:
N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide