1. DOUBLE ENTRY CONCEPT
Chapter 2

2. Accounting equation
A business owns properties. These properties are called assets. The assets are the business resources that enable it to trade and carry out trading. They are financed or funded by the owners of the business who put in funds.
These funds, including assets that the owner may put is called capital. Other persons who are not owners of the firm may also finance assets. Funds from these sources are called liabilities.

3. The Basic Accounting Equation
The total assets must be equal to the total funding i.e. both from owners and non-owners. This is expressed in form of accounting equation which is stated as follows:
Assets = Liabilities + Owners' Equity
This is a mathematical equation which must balance.
If assets total Frw30,000 and liabilities total Frw 20,000, then owners' equity must be Frw 10,000.

4. The Basic Accounting Equation
The balance sheet is an expanded expression of the accounting equation.

5. The Basic Accounting Equation

6. Assets
An asset is a resource controlled by a business entity/firm as a result of past events for which economic benefits are expected to flow to the firm.
They represent probable future economic benefits and arise as the result of past transactions or events.
They are classified as Non current and Current Assets

7. Liabilities
These are obligations of a business as a result of past events settlement of which is expected to result to an economic outflow of amounts from the firm
They are classified as long term and current liabilities. They are probable future sacrifices of economic benefits which arise as the result of past transactions or events.

8. Owners' Equity
Owners' equity represents the owners' residual interest in the assets of the business.
Residual interest is another name for owners' equity.

9. Owners' Equity
Owners may make a direct investment in the business or operate at a profit and leave the profit in the business.
This is the residual amount on the owner’s interest in the firm after deducting liabilities from the assets. Items like introduced capital, profit/loss and drawings appear under equity.

10. Owners’ Equity = Assets – Liabilities
Yet another name for owners' equity is net assets.
Indicates that owners' equity results when liabilities are subtracted from assets.
Owners’ Equity = Assets – Liabilities

11. Name of business
Balance sheet as at date.
ASSETS
Non Current Assets
FRw
Land & Buildings Xx
Plant & Machinery
Fixtures, furniture & fittings
Motors vehicles
Total non-current assets xx
Current Assets
Stocks/inventories
Debtors/ trade receivables
Cash at bank
Cash in hand
Total current assets
Total assets
xxx
EQUITY AND LIABILITIES
Capital
-Opening balance
-Profit/(Loss)
xx/(xx)
-Drawings
(xx)
-Closing balance
Non Current Liabilities
5 Years loan
2 Years loan
Total non current liabilities
Current Liabilities
Creditors/trade payables
5 Months Loan
Bank Overdraft
Total current liabilities
Total liabilities
Total equity and liabilities

12. Balance sheet format
Please pay attention to the format. The Non Current assets are listed in order of permanence as shown i.e. from Land and Buildings to motor vehicles. The Current Assets are listed in order of liquidity i.e. which asset is far from being converted into cash. Example, stock is not yet sold, (i.e. not yet realised yet) then when it is sold we either get cash or a debtor (if sold on credit). When the debtor pays then the debtor may pay by cheque (cash has to be banked) or cash

13. Double Entry rules
The Accounting equation forms the basis of double entry and therefore it should always be maintained. Any change in assets, liabilities or capital will have a double effect such that assets will always be equal to liabilities plus capital. If the owners put in additional capital then this will increase the cash at bank and the capital amount therefore the equation is still maintained

14. The account T format
Name
Debit/Dr
Credit/Cr
Date
Detail
Folio
Amount

15. Double entry
Under the accounting equation if all assets are represented by liabilities and capital therefore all debits should be the same as credits.
For the double entry to be reflected in the accounts, every debit entry must have a corresponding credit entry. The transactions affecting these accounts are posted in the account as debit entry and credit entry to complete the double entry.

16. When we make a debit entry we are either:
Increasing the value of an asset.
Reducing the value of a liability.
Reducing the value of capital.

17. When we make a credit entry we are either:
Reducing the value of an asset.
Increasing the value of a liability.
Increasing the value of capital.
Let us now consider other transactions that take place in a business and the accounting entries to be made.

18. Accounting for sales, purchases, incomes and expenses.

19. Sales:
This is the sale of goods that were bought by a firm (the goods must have been bought with the purpose of resale). Sales are divided into cash sales and credit sales.
When a cash sale is made, the following entries are to be made.
Debit cash either at bank or in hand.
Credit sales account.
For a credit sale:
Debit debtors/ Accounts receivable account.
A new account for sales is opened and credited with cash or credit sales.

20. Purchases:
Buying of goods meant for resale. Purchases can also be for cash or on credit.
For cash purchases:
Debit purchases.
Credit cash at bank/cash in hand
For credit purchases, we:
Credit creditors for goods.
A new account is also opened for purchases where both cash and credit purchases are posted.

21. Incomes:
A firm may have other incomes apart from that generated from trading (sales). Such incomes include:
Rent
Bank interest
Discounts received.

22. Income (Cont)
When the firm receives cash, from these incomes, the following entries are made:
Debit cash in hand/at bank.
Credit income account.
Each type of income should have its own account e.g. rent income, interest income.
Incomes increase the value of capital and that is the reason why they are posted on the credit side of their respective accounts.

23. Expenses:
These are amounts paid out for services rendered other than those paid for purchases. Examples include:
Postage and stationery
Salaries and wages
Telephone bills
Motor vehicle running expenses.
Bank charges.

24. Expenses When a firm pays for an expense, we:
Debit the expense account.
Credit cash at bank/in hand.
Each expense should also have its own account where the corresponding entry will be posted. Expenses decrease the value of capital and thus the posting is made on the debit side of their accounts.
The following diagram is a simple summary of the entries made for incomes and expenses.

25. Analysis Debit cash book/bank/in hand INCOME Credit Income income
EXPENSES
Credit Income income
INCOMES/EXPENS ES
Debit cash book/bank/in hand
Debit Expense A/C
Credit cash book /bank/in hand

26. Accounting for drawings, discounts allowed and discounts received.

27. Drawings The owner makes drawings from the firm in various ways:
i) Cash or bank withdrawals
When the owner withdraws money from the business we debit drawings and credit cashbook (cash in hand or cash at bank).
ii) Taking goods for own use and
When the owner takes out some of the goods for his own use, we debit drawings and credit purchases.
iii) Personal expenses, paid by the business
Here we debit the drawings and credit expense account

28. Drawings (Cont)
Taking some of the other assets from the business e.g. motor vehicles or using part of the premises.
Sometimes the owner may take over some of the assets of the business e.g. vehicle or converting business premises into living quarters or not paying into the business cash collected personally from the customers. When this happens we debit drawings and credit the relevant asset e.g. motor vehicles, premises or some building or even debtors.

29. Discounts
A discount received is an allowance by the creditors to the firm to encourage the firm to pay the amount dues within the agreed time. It is an amount deducted from the invoice price

30. Discounts Allowed
These are the allowances made by a firm on the amounts receivable from the customers to encourage prompt payment.

31. Trial Balance
The trial balance is a simple report that shows the list of account balances classified as per the debits and credits. The purpose of the trial balance is to show the accuracy of the double entries made and to facilitate the preparation of final accounts i.e. the trading, profit & loss account and a balance sheet.
The debits of the trial balance should be the same as the credits, if not then there is an error in one or more of the accounts