Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Structure Haloalkane (alkyl halide): A compound containing a halogen atom covalently bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon. given the symbol RX Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Nomenclature - IUPAC Locate the parent alkane. Number the parent chain to give the substituent encountered first the lower number. Show halogen substituents by the prefixes fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, and iodo- and list them in alphabetical order with other substituents. Locate each halogen on the parent chain. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Freons & Their Alternatives
The Freons are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Among the most widely used are/were Much lower ozone-depleting alternatives are the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), including Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Substitution & Elimination
In this chapter we, concentrate on two types of reactions: Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Nucleophilic Substitution
In the following general reaction, substitution takes place on an sp3 hybridized (tetrahedral) carbon. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Mechanism Chemists propose two limiting mechanisms for nucleophilic substitutions. A fundamental difference between them is the __________ of bond breaking and bond forming steps. At one extreme, the two processes take place simultaneously;______________________. S = N = 2 = rate = k[haloalkane][nucleophile] Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN2 Both reactants are involved in the transition state of the rate-determining step. The nucleophile attacks the reactive center from _____________________ the leaving group. The key step is reaction of a nucleophile and an electrophile to form a new covalent bond. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN1 In the other limiting mechanism, bond breaking between carbon and the leaving group is ______________________before bond forming with the nucleophile begins. This mechanism is designated SN1 where S = substitution N = nucleophilic 1 = rate = k[haloalkane] Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN1 SN1 is illustrated by the solvolysis* of tert-butyl bromide. Step 1: Break a bond to form a stable ion or molecule. Ionization of the C-X bond gives a carbocation. *A reaction in which a solvent molecule (like water or alcohol) is also one of the reactants Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN1 Step 2: Reaction of a nucleophile and an electrophile to form a new covalent bond. Step 3: Take a proton away. Proton transfer to methanol completes the reaction. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN1 and Carbocation Rearrangements
When an SN1 reaction occurs from a 2° haloalkane, a 2° carbocation is formed, which is prone to rearrange to a more stable 3° carbocation (Section 5.4). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evidence for SN Reactions
Let us examine some of the experimental evidence on which these two mechanisms are based and, as we do, consider the following questions. What affect does the structure of the _______________ have on the rate of reaction? What effect does the structure of the _______________ have on the rate of reaction? What effect does the structure of the ________ _________have on the rate of reaction? What is the role of the _____________? Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Nucleophilicity Nucleophilicity: a kinetic property measured by the rate at which a Nu: attacks a reference compound under a standard set of experimental conditions. For example, the rate at which a set of nucleophiles displaces bromide ion from bromoethane in ethanol at 25 °C. Table 7.2 shows common nucleophiles and their relative nucleophilicities Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Relative Nucleophilicity

Summary Consider the rate of each reaction type: Sn2: rate = k[haloalkane][nucleophile] Sn1: rate = k[haloalkane] Because the rate of the nucleophile is only considered in Sn2 mechanisms, the following conclusion can be drawn: Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Summary Strong Nucleophiles favor _____ mechanism Weak nucleophiles disfavors Sn2 mechanism and allows the Sn1 mechanism to compete successfully Blue book problems 9.12 – 9.17 (p. 217) Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Structure of the Haloalkane
SN1 reactions Governed by __________________, namely the relative stabilities of carbocation intermediates. Relative rates: SN2 reactions Governed by __________________, namely the relative ease of approach of the nucleophile to the site of reaction. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 7.3 Effect of electronic and steric factors in competition between SN1 and SN2 reactions of haloalkanes. Blue Book 9.2 – 9.5 and 9.7 – 9.10 (p. 214) Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Leaving Group The best leaving groups in this series are the halogens I–, Br–, and Cl–. (Generally, Good LG are conjugate bases of strong acids!) OH–, RO–, and NH2– are such poor leaving groups that they are rarely if ever displaced in nucleophilic substitution reactions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Leaving Group Hydroxide ion, OH–, is a poor leaving. However, the –OH group of an alcohol can act as a leaving group, H2O, if the –OH group is first protonated by an acid to form —OH2+, a better leaving group. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Solvent Aprotic solvent: A solvent that does not contain an –OH group and is not a hydrogen bond donor. Aprotic solvents favor SN2 reactions. Although the solvents at the top of the table are polar, formation of carbocations in them is more difficult than in protic solvents. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Summary of SN1 and SN2 Reactions of Haloalkanes

Example: Predict the product of each reaction, its mechanism, and the stereochemistry of the product. For more practice, blue book page 224: – 9.35 Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

b-Elimination β-Elimination: Removal of atoms or groups of atoms from adjacent carbons to form a ________________________________. We study a type of b-elimination called ____________________ (the elimination of HX). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

b-Elimination Zaitsev’s rule: The major product of a β-elimination is the more stable (the more highly substituted) alkene. When cis-trans isomerism is possible, the trans isomer is favored. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

b-Elimination There are two limiting mechanisms for β-elimination reactions. E1 mechanism: at one extreme, breaking of the C-X bond is complete before reaction with base breaks the C-H bond. Only R-X is involved in the rate-determining step. E2 mechanism: at the other extreme, breaking of the C-X and C-H bonds is concerted. Both R-X and base are involved in the rate-determining step. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

E1 Mechanism Step 1: Break a bond go give a stable molecule or ion. Rate-determining ionization of C-X gives a carbocation intermediate and halide ion. Step 2: Take a proton away. Proton transfer from the carbocation to a base (in this case, the solvent) gives the alkene. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

E2 Mechanism A one-step mechanism; all bond-breaking and bond-forming steps are concerted. Simultaneously (1) take a proton away and (2) break a bond to form a stable ion or molecule. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Elimination Reactions

Substitution versus Elimination
Because many nucleophiles are also strong bases (OH– and RO–), SN and E reactions often compete. The ratio of SN/E products depends on the _____________________ of the two reactions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

SN1 versus E1 Reactions of 2° and 3° haloalkanes in polar protic solvents give mixtures of substitution and elimination products. Product ratios are difficult to predict. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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