1. Motown pop and southern soul (1960-1970)

2. I. The effect of the British Invasion on Black Pop
There is a large consensus that the British Invasion hindered early 1960s pop music by black artists
Some artists and styles survived
Phil Spector, Leiber and Stoller, and others had hit records in 1964
Shangri-Las’ “Leader of the Pack” went to #1 for Leiber and Stoller’s Red Bird label in 1964
The Righteous Brothers’ song “You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feeling” went to #1 in 1965 (a Phil Spector production)
The Drifters’ with “Under the Boardwalk” reached #4 in 1964

3. Many artists did not remain on the charts after the British Invasion
The Ronettes’ “Walking in the Rain” only made it to #29
The Brill Building approach to making records died out with the British Invasion
There is a temptation to compare the British Invasion to the 1950s
British musicians played music inspired or derived from black music styles in the 1960s
White groups and artists covered a great number of black pop songs in the 1950s

4. New black pop music arrived during the 1960s from new artists and other parts of the country
Detroit, MI
Memphis, TN
Muscle Shoals, AL
Atlanta, GA

5. Styles from these regions raise the question about whether one style could be “blacker” than others
Motown records was an independent label founded in Detroit, MI
Had enormous commercial success that paralleled the Beatles’ success timeline in the early 1960s
Built the sound of the records around styles that appealed to a white audience
That generated accusations that Motown had “sold out” for big profits
Southern soul from the Memphis area remained truer to musical roots in black culture

6. II. Motown: Black music for white audiences
Founded by Berry Gordy, Jr. in 1959
Gordy had several jobs before starting a record label
Professional boxer
Worked for his father’s plastering company
Owned a record store
Worked on the Ford assembly line

7. Gordy was interested in jazz but knew it wasn’t commercially successful
A boxing friend, Jackie Wilson, was going into singing and needed songs
Gordy collaborated with Billy Davis (a.k.a. Tyran Carlo) on songs for Wilson
“Reet Petite”
“Lonely Teardrops”
“That’s Why (I Love You So)”
Gordy formed Motown Records in 1959 and patterned many songs after other successful records
1st hit was in 1960, Barrett Strong’s “Money (That’s What I Want)”
The Marvelettes’ “Please Mr. Postman” draws from Brill Building “girl group” style
By the Contours’ “Do You Love Me” resembles the Isley Brothers’ style

8. Gordy knew that the best commercial potential was in crossover records
From rhythm and blues to pop
He used the same approach as Chuck Berry: the original version would become the crossover
That eliminated the need (or opportunity) for other labels to cover the records
This concept brought huge financial records
Records generally charted higher on the rhythm and blues charts but pop was always close

9. Gordy studied the successful models and used them in his own company
The Leiber and Stoller idea of songwriters producing their songs had worked
That idea had been adopted by the Brill Building successfully so Gordy employed it in Motown
The original Motown songwriter-producer team from 1960 to 1964 included
Gordy
William “Mickey” Stevenson
William “Smokey” Robinson

10. This team is responsible for several early hits
The first Miracles hit “Shop Around”
Written by Gordy and Robinson, produced by Gordy

11. Robinson wrote and produced several hits for Motown singer Mary Wells form 1962-1964:
“The One Who Really Loves You”
“You Beat Me to the Punch”
“Two Lovers”
“My Guy”

12. The Producers
From 1964 to 1967 Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Eddie Holland (Holland-Dozier-Holland OR H-D-H) created many hits for groups recording for the label:
Supremes
Four Tops
Martha and the Vandellas
From 1967 to 1970 Norman Whitfield produced hits for the Temptations
Other important late 1960s producers included
Frank Wilson
The team of Valerie Ashford and Nick Simpson

13. Quality Control—Motown style
Recordings were produced in two adjoining Detroit houses called “Hitsville, USA”
Gifted and experienced studio musicians helped producers craft their arrangements
Similar to Phil Spector’s “wrecking crew”
Musicians were talented jazz musicians, adept at improvising and spontaneous “arranging”
Holland-Dozier-Holland sessions frequently began with only sparse musical directions
A core group of musicians were at the center of the production process

14. They played on most of the recordings
Pianist Earl Van Dyke
Drummer Bennie Benjamin
Electric bassist James Jamerson
They were the studio band, “The Funk Brothers,” responsible for the min-1960s “Motown sound”
In 2003 a documentary was produced about the Funk Brothers
Standing in the Shadows of Motown
The film featured interviews with surviving members of the studio band
Attention was finally focused on the musicians who were so much a part of that style
Gordy held a weekly meeting with the Motown staff to decide which records they thought would be hits

16. Artist development was incorporated into the label
Purpose was to teach low-income-bred artists how to behave in all possible social situations
Former Broadway choreographer Cholly Atkins was hired to teach dance and stage movements
Dance movements had to be refined and graceful
Motown artists had to project an image of class and sophistication
Gordy hired a charm school teacher, Maxine Powell, to teach proper manners and etiquette
Artists learned how to speak and move with charm and grace
They were groomed to be able to appear at elegant performance venues
They were to be prepared to perform at the White House or Buckingham Palace

17. III. The Motown Artists The Temptations
The Temptations formed in 1961 and were one of Motown’s top acts from
They were made up of members of two Detroit area groups: the Distants and the Primes. (Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, Al Bryant [replaced by David Ruffin in 1963], Eddie Kendricks, Paul Williams, and Dennis Edwards [replaced Ruffin in 1968])

18. The group had a hit in early 1964: “The Way You Do the Thing You Do”
Written & produced by Smokey Robinson
Exemplifies Robinson’s clever approach to lyrics
“You got a smile so bright, you could’ve been a candle,” works with Robinson’s cheerful music
Features Kendrick’s high tenor vocals

19. Robinson went on to write and produce more Temptations hits
“My Girl” featuring Ruffin on lead vocals
“Get Ready”
Norman Whitfield produced several Temptations hits in the later part of the 1960s
“Ain’t Too Proud to Beg”
“I Know I’m Losing You”
“You’re My Everything”
“Cloud Nine” displays influence of Sly and the Family Stone

20. The Supremes
Best example of the Motown sound from the mid to late 1960s
The extension of the Brill Building’s girl-group concept to highest level of commercial success
Formed in Detroit in 1959 as a sister group to the Primes, they were called the Primettes (Diana Ross, Mary Wilson, Florence Ballard-replaced by Cindy Birdsong in 1967)
Unsuccessful releases until H-D-H produced 5 consecutive #1 hits

21. H-D-H left Motown in 1967, but the Supremes had another hit in 1968
“Where Did Our Love Go”
“Baby Love”
“Come See about Me”
“Stop! In the Name of Love”
“Back in My Arms Again”
“Reflections”
H-D-H left Motown in 1967, but the Supremes had another hit in 1968
“Love Child”
Diana Ross left in 1969 to pursue a solo career
Their last single featuring Ross was “Someday We’ll be Together”

22. The Supremes and H-D-H
One of the most successful writing and production teams in popular music
“Baby Love” is good example of the H-D-H/ Supremes approach during the mid 1960s
The introduction uses an arrangement idea similar to their previous hit “Where Did Our Love Go?”
A sound like handclaps: actually wooden 2x4s slapping together
Introduction that features a series of pulsating piano chords with drums
Vibraphone (or “vibes”): similar to the xylophone but with a sustained sound with vibrato

23. Nice twists to the arrangement
Simple verse form
Seven verses repeated mostly without much change in accompaniment
Accompaniment includes electric guitar and bass after the introduction
Other Supremes provide backup vocals
Nice twists to the arrangement
Third verse: saxophone takes a solo for the last eight measures
Verse 5 introduces a change of key: up a ½ step

24. H-D-H were so successful because they repeated ideas that work
In the first two Supremes songs the word “Baby” is frequently used
The first three singles use simple verse form
Contrasting verse-chorus form used in “Stop! In the Name of Love” and “Back in My Arms Again”

25. The Four Tops
Formed in 1954 and remained together for four decades (Levi Stubbs, Obie Benson, Lawrence Payton, Duke Fakir)
The male counterparts to the Supremes from
A string of H-D-H hits that included
“Baby I Need Your Loving”
“I Can’t Help Myself”
“It’s the Same Old Song”
“Reach Out I’ll Be There”
“Standing in the Shadows of Love”

26. “I Can’t Help Myself” by the Four Tops
H-D-H arrangement characteristics frequently included classical references
Orchestral strings
Classical harmonic progressions
“I Can’t Help Myself” by the Four Tops

27. Martha (Reeves) and the Vandellas formed in Detroit in 1962
Recorded for Chess Records as members of the Del-Phis, they became the Vandellas in 1963
Rosalyn Ashford
Annette Beard (replaced by Betty Kelly Beard in 1964)
Reeves and friends sang backup on Marvin Gaye’s “Stubborn Kind of Fellow”
H-D-H produced most of the Martha and the Vandellas hits
“Heat Wave”
“Quicksand”
“Dancing in the Street” produced by Mickey Stevenson
“Nowhere to Run”

28. Martha and the Vandellas vocal style was drawn from gospel music
“Jimmy Mack”
Martha and the Vandellas vocal style was drawn from gospel music
Powerful full-throated vocal style from Reeves
Stark contrast to the Supremes’ much more reserved pop style
Foreshadowed more soulful singers who would arrive mid-decade
Acceptance of the Martha and the Vandellas sound opened the door for Aretha Franklin

29. Marvin Gaye One of three artist-producers on the Motown label
Smokey Robinson was one
Stevie Wonder was the other
His first hit was in 1962: “Stubborn Kind of Fellow”
Sixteen more Top 40 singles
Ten Top 40 hits in duets with Mary Wells, Tammi Terrel, and Kim Weston
Gaye collaborated with Motown producers on many hit songs
“Pride and Joy” for Mickey Stevenson
“How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved By You)” for H-D-H
“Ain’t That Peculiar” for Smokey Robinson
“Ain’t Nothing Like the Real Thing” sung with Tammi Terrell and produced by Ashford Simpson

30. “How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved By You)”
Gaye produced hits for the Originals in the late 1960s
“Baby I’m for Real”
“The Bells”
Gaye’s most important production was his 1971 concept album What’s Going On
“How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved By You)”

31. Stevie Wonder His first hit was “Fingertips, part 2” at age 13
Live recording of an impromptu performance from a Motown revue concert
Spontaneity made this one of Motown’s biggest hits
Wonder had several hits through the late 1960s (after his voice changed) on songs he co-wrote
“Uptight (Everything’s Alright)”
“I Was Made to Love Her”
“For Once In My Live”
“My Cherie Amour”
He began producing his own records in “Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I’m Yours”

32. “Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I’m Yours”
He produced his own album Where I’m Coming From in 1971
That album contained two hit singles
“If You Really Loved Me”
“We Can Work It Out”: a cover of the Beatles’ 1965 hit
Stevie Wonder’s writing and production skills helped Motown evolve into the 1970s
“Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I’m Yours”

33. IV. Motown’s impact on the Civil Rights movement
Gordy truly believed Motown artists should appeal to white middle class
The carefully controlled choreography and charm-school training guaranteed that this would happen
The Brill Building approach to the sound of the music also figured in
Black Americans embraced the sound
They knew it sounded “white” but the artists were from their culture, so they supported it
Motown artists demonstrated that all blacks could assimilate into white culture

34. The Motown model serves as a forerunner to other labels in the 1970s
Those who considered Motown to be a “sell-out” of black identity and culture looked to the South
Southern soul music countered the Motown move away from black cultural roots
Motown songs maintained a strong sense of heritage while also promoting change
The Motown model serves as a forerunner to other labels in the 1970s
George Clinton took black music in new directions that appealed to all racial groups
Gamble and Huff launched the disco era using black pop as a foundation

35. They further extended the Motown/Brill Building approach to orchestrating songs
Their songs were also driven by up-tempo dance rhythms

36. V. Atlantic, Stax, and Southern Soul
Atlantic began the 1960s as a highly successful rhythm and blues oriented label
They had incorporated the Leiber and Stoller/Brill Building approach into their song production
Their sweet soul artists’ records were successful (Drifters, Coasters, Ben E. King)
Producer Jerry Wexler wasn’t getting to produce as much as he wanted to (Leiber and Stoller had taken over much of the production of the label’s songs)
Wexler and Bert Berns signed Solomon Burke to the label and co-produced several hits

37. “Just Out of My Reach (Of My Two Open Arms)”
“If You Need Me”
“Goodbye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)”
“Got to Get You off My Mind”
“Tonight’s the Night”
Wexler’s renewed enthusiasm for production led him to explore southern black music styles
Southern black music was more emotional
It had an exuberance more commonly found in black gospel music
This quality was not evident in sweet soul songs by the Drifters or Ben E. King
Jerry Wexler held an important role in developing southern soul music during the 1960s

38. “Just Out of My Reach (of My Two Open Arms)”
Performed by Solomon Burke

39. The Memphis southern soul connection with New York
Atlantic records formed a licensing agreement with Memphis-based Stax records
Licensing agreements were common between large labels and small labels
The large label pressed copies using either their own label or the smaller label
These records were distributed by the larger label that had the larger distribution network
The larger label took a percentage of the sales (everybody wins)
The small label’s songs were usually regional hits
These songs were often in a unique style that the large label couldn’t reproduce on its own

40. Stax records formed in 1960 in Memphis by Jim Stewart and sister Estelle Axton (St+Ax=Stax)
Original name was Satellite Records
Wexler liked one of their records by Rufus Thomas called “Cause I Love You”-sung by Thomas and his daughter Carla
Atlantic leased the record and another, “Gee Whiz,” in 1961
“Gee Whiz” was a Top 10 hit in pop and rhythm and blues charts

41. Atlantic and Stax set up leasing agreements for many songs during the early 1960s
“Last Night” by the Mar-Keys—an instrumental
“Green Onions” by Booker T. and the MG’s—also an instrumental
“Walkin’ the Dog!”, a dance hit by Rufus Thomas
The records were recorded in Memphis under conditions similar to Motown’s
In-house band: Booker T. and the MG’s
Booker T. Jones on organ, Steve Cropper on guitar, Donald “Duck” Dunn on bass, and Al Jackson Jr. on drums
Songwriters involved in Stax songs were David Porter, Isaac Hayes, Steve Cropper—worked with Otis Redding as co-writer and producer

42. The Stax operation was more casual than the Motown and certainly more so than at Atlantic
Musicians took on whatever role was necessary
There was more experimentation and spontaneity in the performances
Whatever the tracks lacked in polish was made up in sincerity and urgency
The music just sounded like everyone was trying harder and enjoying the effort

43. Otis Redding
One of the most important Stax artists who helped bring attention to the “Stax” sound
“These Arms of Mine”
While only a rhythm and blues chart Top 40 hit, it brought Redding into the picture
Redding’s vocal style is drawn heavily from gospel singing style
In 1965 Redding began getting crossover hits
Redding’s gospel-influenced vocals and the hard-driving music accompaniment defined the Stax sound
“Mr. Pitiful”, “I’ve Been Loving You Too Long”, “Respect”, “Try a Little Tenderness”

44. “Sittin’ on the Dock of the Bay” went to #1 on pop and rhythm and blues charts in 1968
Redding appeared at the Monterey Pop Festival in the summer of 1967 (his appearance helped acquaint the hippie audience to southern soul music)
Redding was killed in a plane crash in December 1967; he didn’t live to see his influence on pop music

45. VI. Atlantic Records and the connection to Fame Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Atlantic also recorded artists at Rick Hall’s Fame Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Wilson Pickett
Atlantic producer Jerry Wexler discovered Pickett through a demo recording he sang
Wexler and Bert Berns produced the song “If You Need Me: with singer Solomon Burke in 1961
The Double L label also released the demo version with Pickett’s vocal—competing with Atlantic

46. When Pickett came to Atlantic, Wexler immediately signed him to the label
Wexler took Pickett to Memphis to record with Stax musicians in the Stax style
They recorded “In the Midnight Hour”
The song featured a delayed backbeat that Wexler showed the band
Became a characteristic signature sound of the Stax records

47. Some of Pickett’s best-known songs were recorded there
When studio time was difficult to get at Stax, Wexler moved to Fame studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Some of Pickett’s best-known songs were recorded there
“Land of 1000 Dances”
“Mustang Sally”
“Funky Broadway”
Atlantic had distributed songs from Dial Records in Nashville that were recorded at Fame Studios
Joe Tex’s hit “Hold What You’ve Got”
Wexler had licensed Percy Sledge’s “When A Man Loves A Woman”
Sledge’s hit was recorded at Quinvy Studios near Muscle Shoals, but Fame Studios would do others

48. Sam and Dave with Porter and Hayes
Sam and Dave were Atlantic artists who recorded at Stax records
Stax owner Jim Stewart put them together with songwriters David Porter and Isaac Hayes
This team functioned similarly to Motown’s pairing of writer-producers with artists
Holland-Dozier-Holland with the Supremes
Norman Whitfield with the Temptations
Sam and Dave had several hits as a result of this teamwork
“You Don’t Know Like I Know”
“Hold On, I’m Comin’”
The classic Sam and Dave number “Soul Man” is also a result of their efforts

49. “Soul Man”
Performed by Sam and Dave
Produced by Porter and Hayes

50. VII. The Stax Sound Wilson Pickett’s “In the Midnight Hour”
Simple verse form with instrumental interlude
Introduction
4 measure introduction featuring horns
2 measures of a simple two-chord pattern
The two-chord pattern is basis for the tune
Guitar and snare drum play together on beats 2 and 4
They are so late that they are almost out of time
Stax recordings don’t have backup vocals
Pickett’s vocal is the primary focus of the song
Instrumental interlude uses a slightly varied chord pattern
This interlude creates a sense of formal variety

51. VIII. Southern Soul in the Big Apple
Aretha Franklin
Gospel-influenced singing style
Born in Memphis
Raised in Detroit
Recorded most of her hits in New York
Daughter of Reverend C.L. Franklin
Well-known Baptist preacher in Detroit
Regularly broadcast his sermons
Originally signed with Columbia in New York
Didn’t do well there
Singing in a soft-pop mainstream style
Signed with Atlantic in 1966

52. Jerry Wexler produced her first track in Fame Studios in Muscle Shoals
“I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)”
Dispute in the studio between Aretha’s husband and someone from the Fame organization
They went back to New York
All subsequent tracks were recorded in New York
Wexler flew in the rhythm section from Muscle Shoals, but Rick Hall didn’t know about it
“Baby I Love You”
“You Make Me Feel (Like A Natural Woman)”
“Chain of Fools”
“Think”

53. “Respect” by Aretha Franklin

54. IX. Motown, Atlantic, Stax, and issues of “blackness”
Consensus is that Motown records were less true to black culture than Stax records
Motown’s musical style is aimed at a pop market
Both labels had sales as the main goal, so Stax would have aimed at a pop market as well
Motown arrangements were more inspired by successful pop arrangements
Stax arrangements appealed to a pop market because of their contrast to Motown
Stax balanced out the polish of Motown with their sincerity and spontaneity

55. Discrepancies do confuse the issue
Some Motown records sound more like Stax records
Motown was a black-owned company (producers and songwriters were black & Motown band was black)
Atlantic and Stax were white-owned (Atlantic and Stax producers were white; Stax songwriters and musicians were black and white; Everyone at Muscle Shoals except the actual singers were white
The obvious question: Does race actually matter in the note-to-note performance process?
Musicians involved in all of the records played as required by the producers
Producers were ultimately responsible for the sound—they made all the creative decisions

56. X. 1968 was the year of change for black music in America
Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King was killed on April 4, 1968
King was a highly respected advocate of racial equality
His methods of achieving that were non-violent
Racial tensions had been escalating for years—this brought on waves of violent reactions

57. Atlantic was sold to Warner Brothers Seven Arts
That affected the distribution deal with Stax
Stax ended up being sold to Gulf Western
The Stax team of writers, musicians, and producers drifted apart
Changes were occurring at Motown
H-D-H left Motown in 1967
Berry Gordy wanted to move Motown to Hollywood to pursue movie possibilities
Motown writers began writing more socially significant songs (as a reaction to King’s assassination)
By the early 1970s, Motown’s top artist-writers began focusing on black urban life situations

58. XI. James Brown
Unquestionably the most important black performer of the 1960s
Brown was a member of the southern Georgia based Fabulous Flames in the 1950s
Brown was substituted for Little Richard when his hit “Tutti Frutti” led him away from Georgia
Brown actually performed as Little Richard
Moving from doo-wop to soul
“Think” featured new approaches to rhythm
Brown gained a reputation for his active stage performance

59. He developed a trademark closing routine
His performance emphasized athletic showmanship
A combination of singing and extremely energetic dancing
He developed a trademark closing routine
Would collapse on stage in exhaustion
Would be helped offstage, but before he reached the side he would suddenly get energized and run back out and continue
Brown and his manager, Ben Bart, released a live album in 1963
Live at the Apollo reached #2 on the pop charts
Good example of his energetic performance style
Demonstrated his stylistic range

60. Beginning in 1964, Brown began focusing his songs on hard driving rhythmic accompaniment
“Out of Sight”
“Papa’s Got a Brand New Bag, Pt. 1”
“I Got You (I Feel Good)”
“It’s a Man’s Man’s Man’s World”
“Cold Sweat”

61. Brown took control of all aspects of his music and career
He wrote and produced his songs
King Records owner Sid Nathan and manager Ben Bart died in 1968
After that Brown handled his own business affairs
The musicians in his band were extremely talented
Brown rehearsed his band relentlessly
The band was one of the tightest performance ensembles in the 1960s
Heavy emphasis on tightly interwoven rhythmic grooves between horns and rhythm section

62. The hit “Papa’s Got a Brand New Bag” exemplifies the James Brown sound
The track opens with a sustained chord
Verses employ the 12-bar blues structure
The rhythmic groove is created by the full ensemble
The arrangement differs from Stax arrangements because of the stops at the ends of the verses
No backup vocals—separating him from Motown and his earlier 1950s doo-wop style

63. Brown was a positive force behind the “Black Pride” movement of the late ‘60s/ early 70s
He did not compromise his black culture in his music
Brown’s turn to strong rhythmic focus in his music foreshadowed 1970s funk
Brown’s contributions to funk make him one of the most important figures in 1970s black pop

64. XII. Brown in Boston
Institutionalized racism in America had reached a dangerous level by the 1960s
Black musicians formed a strong voice in response to the civil rights movement
During the 1950s black performers spoke out in the fight for equal rights for black Americans
(Harry Belafonte, Lena Horne, Louis Armstrong)
Early 1960s black artists included clear political ideas in their music (i.e. Sam Cooke’s “A Change is Gonna Come”, Joe Tex’s “The Love You Save”, Curtis Mayfield’s group the Impressions: “People Get Ready” and “Keep on Pushing”)

65. These and other black artists propelled the Black Pride movement forward during the late 1960s
James Brown single-handedly calmed rioting in several cities the night following MLK’s assassination on April 4, 1968
Black Americans reacted violently to MLK’s assassination
The next night Brown gave a concert in Boston that was televised across the country
He started the show by asking the viewers to be calm and stay in—to not destroy their community
He reminded black viewers about King’s dedication to peaceful change
Boston and several other cities were relatively quiet that night

66. He went to Washington, D. C
He went to Washington, D.C., the next night and gave a speech on television that ended riots there
James Brown proved that a black musician had the power to bring peace to violent eruption
He had always maintained,
“The music wasn’t a part of the revolution. The music was the revolution.”