1. Introduction to Anatomy

2. Basic Anatomy
Anatomy is the science of the structure and function of the body that can be seen grossly (without the aid of magnification) and microscopically (with the aid of magnification).
Typically, when used by itself, the term 'anatomy' tends to mean gross or macroscopic anatomy
Clinical anatomy is the study of the macroscopic structure and function of the body as it relates to the practice of medicine and other health sciences.
Basic anatomy is the study of the minimal amount of anatomy consistent with the understanding of the overall structure and function of the body.
Physiology – the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery

3. Gross Anatomy
Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg)
Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system
Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin

4. Microscopic Anatomy Cytology – study of the cell
Histology – study of tissues

5. Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth

6. Specialized Branches of Anatomy
Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by X ray
Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a sub-cellular level

7. Descriptive Anatomic Terms
The accurate use of anatomic terms by medical personnel enables them to communicate with their colleagues both nationally and internationally
Without anatomic terms, one cannot accurately discuss or record the abnormal functions of joints, the actions of muscles, the alteration of position of organs, or the exact location of swellings or tumors

8. Terms Related to Position

9. Terms Related to Position
All descriptions of the human body are based on the assumption that the person is standing erect, with the upper limbs by the sides and the face and palms of the hands directed forward
This is the so-called anatomical position. The various parts of the body are then described in relation to certain imaginary planes.

10. Anatomical Position Body erect Feet slightly apart
Palms facing forward
Thumbs point away from body
Figure 1.7a

11. Median Sagittal Plane
This is a vertical plane passing through the center of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves
Planes situated to one or the other side of the median plane and parallel to it are termed paramedian
A structure situated nearer to the median plane of the body than another is said to be medial to the other
Similarly, a structure that lies farther away from the median plane than another is said to be lateral to the other.

12. Terms Related to Position
Coronal Planes
These planes are imaginary vertical planes at right angles to the median plane
Horizontal, or Transverse, Planes
These planes are at right angles to both the median and the coronal planes

13. Body Planes
Figure 1.8

14. Terms Related to Position
The terms anterior and posterior are used to indicate the front and back of the body, respectively
To describe the relationship of two structures, one is said to be anterior or posterior to the other insofar as it is closer to the anterior or posterior body surface
In describing the hand, the terms palmar and dorsal surfaces are used in place of anterior and posterior

15. Terms Related to Position
in describing the foot, the terms plantar and dorsal surfaces are used instead of lower and upper surfaces
The terms proximal and distal describe the relative distances from the roots of the limbs
for example, the arm is proximal to the forearm and the hand is distal to the forearm.

16. Terms Related to Position
The terms superficial and deep denote the relative distances of structures from the surface of the body,
and the terms superior and inferior denote levels relatively high or low with reference to the upper and lower ends of the body.
The terms internal and external are used to describe the relative distance of a structure from the center of an organ or cavity
for example, the internal carotid artery is found inside the cranial cavity and the external carotid artery is found outside the cranial cavity.

17. Directional Terms
Table 1.1

18. Directional Terms
Table 1.1

19. Terms Related to Position
The term ipsilateral refers to the same side of the body; Contralateral refers to opposite sides of the body
for example, the left hand and left foot are ipsilateral
The supine position of the body is lying on the back. The prone position is lying face downward.

20. Terms Related to Movement

21. Terms Related to Movement
A joint is a site where two or more bones come together is known as a joint
Some joints have no movement (sutures of the skull),
some have only slight movement (superior tibiofibular joint)
and some are freely movable (shoulder joint).

22. Terms Related to Movement
Flexion is a movement that takes place in a sagittal plane
For example, flexion of the elbow joint approximates the anterior surface of the forearm to the anterior surface of the arm
It is usually an anterior movement, but it is occasionally posterior, as in the case of the knee joint
Extension means straightening the joint and usually takes place in a posterior direction

23. Terms Related to Movement
Abduction is a movement of a limb away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane
Adduction is a movement of a limb toward the body in the coronal plane

24. Terms Related to Movement
In the fingers and toes, abduction is applied to the spreading of these structures
adduction is applied to the drawing together of these structures
The movements of the thumb are a little more complicated

25. Terms Related to Movement
Rotation is the term applied to the movement of a part of the body around its long axis
Medial rotation is the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing medially
Lateral rotation is the movement that results in the anterior surface of the part facing laterally

26. Terms Related to Movement
Circumduction is the combination in sequence of the movements of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction

27. Terms Related to Movement
Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane

28. Terms Related to Movement
Pronation of the forearm is a medial rotation of the forearm in such a manner that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly
Supination of the forearm is a lateral rotation of the forearm from the pronated position so that the palm of the hand comes to face anteriorly

29. Terms Related to Movement
Inversion is the movement of the foot so that the sole faces in a medial direction
Eversion is the opposite movement of the foot so that the sole faces in a lateral direction

30. Terms Related to Movement

31. Terms Related to Movement

32. Regional Terms

33. Regional Terms: Anterior View
Axial – head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular – appendages or limbs
Specific regional terminology
Figure 1.7a

34. Regional Terms: Posterior View
Figure 1.7b

35. Body Cavities
Figure 1.9a

36. Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the brain
Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column and encases the spinal cord
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions: - Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities

37. Body Cavities
Figure 1.9b

38. Bones and Muscles

39. Bone
Bone is a living tissue capable of changing its structure as the result of the stresses to which it is subjected
Like other connective tissues, bone consists of cells, fibers, and matrix
It is hard because of the calcification of its extracellular matrix and possesses a degree of elasticity because of the presence of organic fibers

40. Skeleton

41. Functions Bone has a protective function
the skull and vertebral column, for example, protect the brain and spinal cord from injury
the sternum and ribs protect the thoracic and upper abdominal viscera
It serves as a lever, as seen in the long bones of the limbs
an important storage area for calcium salts
It houses and protects within its cavities the delicate blood-forming bone marrow.

42. Bone exists in two forms: compact and cancellous
Compact bone appears as a solid mass
cancellous bone consists of a branching network of trabeculae
The trabeculae are arranged in such a manner as to resist the stresses and strains to which the bone is exposed.

43. Surface Markings of Bones
The surfaces of bones show various markings or irregularities
Where bands of fascia, ligaments, tendons, or aponeuroses are attached to bone
These roughenings are not present at birth
They appear at puberty and become progressively more obvious during adult life
In certain situations, the surface markings are large and are given special names

44. Classification of Bones
Bones may be classified regionally or according to their general shape
Bones are grouped as follows based on their general shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones.

45. Long Bones
Long bones are found in the limbs (e.g., the humerus, femur, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges).
Their length is greater than their breadth
The ends of long bones are composed of cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone
The articular surfaces of the ends of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.

46. Short Bones
Short bones are found in the hand and foot (e.g., the scaphoid, lunate, talus, and calcaneum).
They are roughly cuboidal in shape
composed of cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone
Short bones are covered with periosteum, and the articular surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage.

47. Flat Bones
Flat bones are found in the vault of the skull (e.g., the frontal and parietal bones).
The sternum and scapulae, although irregular, are included in this group.

48. Irregular Bones
Irregular bones include those not assigned to the previous groups (e.g., the bones of the skull, the vertebrae, and the pelvic bones).
They are composed of a thin shell of compact bone with an interior made up of cancellous bone.

49. Sesamoid Bones
Sesamoid bones are small nodules of bone that are found in certain tendons.
The greater part of a sesamoid bone is buried in the tendon, and the free surface is covered with cartilage
The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which is located in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris
The function of a sesamoid bone is to reduce friction on the tendon

50. Regional Classification of Bones
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton

51. Axial skeleton (num. of bones)
Skull:
    Cranium 8
  Face 14
Auditory ossicles 6
Hyoid 1
Vertebrae (including sacrum and coccyx) 26
 Sternum 1
 Ribs 24
Subtotal = 80

52. Appendicular skeleton
 Shoulder girdles
Clavicle 2         Scapula 2
Upper extremities
 Humerus 2     Radius 2     Ulna 2    
 Carpals 16     Metacarpals 10     Phalanges 28
Pelvic girdle    
 Hip bone 2
Lower extremities    
 Femur 2     Patella 2     Fibula 2     Tibia 2     Tarsals 14    
 Metatarsals 10     Phalanges 28
Subtotal = 126
Total = 206

53. Upper Limb

54. Bones of Upper Limb

55. Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
The shoulder girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula
which articulate with one another at the acromioclavicular joint.

56. Clavicle
The clavicle is a long, slender bone that lies horizontally across the root of the neck just beneath the skin
It articulates with the sternum and first costal cartilage medially and with the acromion process of the scapula laterally
The clavicle acts as a strut that holds the arm away from the trunk
The medial two thirds of the clavicle is convex forward and its lateral third is concave forward

57. Scapula The scapula is a flat triangular bone
lies on the posterior chest wall between the second and the seventh ribs
On its posterior surface, the spine of the scapula projects backward
The posterior surface of the scapula is divided by the spine into the supraspinous fossa above and an infraspinous fossa below

58. The superolateral angle of the scapula forms the pear-shaped glenoid cavity, or fossa
articulates with the head of the humerus at the shoulder joint
The coracoid process projects upward and forward above the glenoid cavity and provides attachment for muscles and ligaments
Medial to the base of the coracoid process is the suprascapular notch

59. The lateral end of the spine is free and forms the acromion, which articulates with the clavicle
The anterior surface of the scapula is concave and forms the shallow subscapular fossa
The inferior angle of the scapula can be palpated easily and marks the level of the seventh rib

60. Humerus
The humerus articulates with the scapula at the shoulder joint and with the radius and ulna at the elbow joint
The upper end of the humerus has a head
forms about one third of a sphere and articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Immediately below the head is the anatomic neck

61. Below the neck are the greater and lesser tuberosities, separated from each other by the bicipital groove
Where the upper end of the humerus joins the shaft is a narrow surgical neck
About halfway down the lateral aspect of the shaft is a roughened elevation called the deltoid tuberosity
Behind and below the tuberosity is a spiral groove, which accommodates the radial nerve

62. The lower end of the humerus possesses the medial and lateral epicondyles for the attachment of muscles and ligaments
the rounded capitulum for articulation with the head of the radius
the pulley-shaped trochlea for articulation with the trochlear notch of the ulna
Above the capitulum is the radial fossa, which receives the head of the radius
Above the trochlea anteriorly is the coronoid fossa
Above the trochlea posteriorly is the olecranon fossa

64. Radius The radius is the lateral bone of the forearm
Its proximal end articulates with the humerus at the elbow joint and with the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint
At the proximal end of the radius is the small circular head
The upper surface of the head is concave and articulates with the convex capitulum of the humerus
The circumference of the head articulates with the radial notch of the ulna
Below the head the bone is constricted to form the neck
Below the neck is the bicipital tuberosity for the insertion of the biceps muscle

65. The shaft of the radius is wider below than above
It has a sharp interosseous border medially
for the attachment of the interosseous membrane that binds the radius and ulna together
The pronator tubercle, for the insertion of the pronator teres muscle, lies halfway down on its lateral side

66. At the distal end of the radius is the styloid process
On the medial surface is the ulnar notch, which articulates with the round head of the ulna
The inferior articular surface articulates with the scaphoid and lunate bones
On the posterior aspect of the distal end is a small tubercle, the dorsal tubercle

67. Ulna The ulna is the medial bone of the forearm
The proximal end of the ulna is large and is known as the olecranon process
forms the prominence of the elbow
It has a notch on its anterior surface, the trochlear notch
Below the trochlear notch is the triangular coronoid process
has on its lateral surface the radial notch

68. The shaft of the ulna tapers from above down
It has a sharp interosseous border laterally for the attachment of the interosseous membrane
The posterior border is rounded and subcutaneous and can be easily palpated
Below the radial notch is the supinator crest that gives origin to the supinator muscle.

69. At the distal end of the ulna is the small rounded head
which has projecting from its medial aspect the styloid process

70. Bones of the Hand
There are eight carpal bones, made up of two rows of four
The proximal row consists of (from lateral to medial)
the scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform bones.
The distal row consists of (from lateral to medial)
the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones
The bones of the hand are cartilaginous at birth

71. The Metacarpals and Phalanges
There are five metacarpal bones, each of which has a base, a shaft, and a head
The first metacarpal bone of the thumb is the shortest and most mobile
The bases of the metacarpal bones articulate with the distal row of the carpal bones
the heads, which form the knuckles, articulate with the proximal phalanges
There are three phalanges for each of the fingers but only two for the thumb.