1. The Roman Empire
U3A Wodonga 2018

2. The Roman Empire AD 120 - how did they manage it?

3. The provinces of the Roman Empire AD 120

4. In the beginning
Dates incidentally start with the founding of Rome until 525 AD.
Romulus and Remus sons of Mars founded Rome in 753BC. Abandoned and left to drown they were rescued by a she wolf and later brought up by a herdsman. Mother claimed she had been raped by Mars.
A good spot on fresh water Tiber and the hills a natural defence.
They disagreed over the wall barrier of the city and Romulus killed Remus giving his name to Rome. Brother killing brother – civil war a theme in Roman history.
Rome an Asylum – haven for runaway slaves, criminals etc. Nearly all men so where to get women?
Invite Sabines to a welcome meal and abduct the women. Eventually shared Rome with the Sabines. Incorporating outsiders also in the genes.
Even Slaves – by 2nd century most Romans had some slave background.
Italy very mixed then – Etruscans to the North and Latins and Sabines on their doorstep. At war with their neighbours.

5. “The oath of the Horatii”

6. The reign of kings
Kings everywhere – grand for a wattle and daub town. Kings really chiefs? Roman encounters often described on a grand scale – army or a cattle raid? All battles less than 20K from Rome.
7 kings – only 2 were not murdered. Tarquin Superbus – expelled in 509BC. Over Roman angry at being used as fodder for Etruscan public projects. The rape of Lucretia. Lucretia suicides.
6th Century BC. Public buildings appear, town centre, drains and flood mitigation.. 20 – 30 thousand people now. A match for the Etruscans and bigger than the Latins.
End of kings – “rex” becomes despised term. Replaced by Consuls.
2 consuls – both military and civilian leaders.. Elected by popular vote and elected for one year only. Power shared except in emergencies.
Women and slaves did not vote but the poor did and their vote mattered. The rich held power but had to court the poor as it is now.

7. The Great Leap forward
Mid 5th Century BC – The Twelve tables – a legal code on dispute resolution.
396BC Etruscan town of Veii taken.
390BC – Gauls sack Rome. Massacre of the old men. Feared the Gauls ever since then.
312 BC – Aqueducts – the Appian way to Capua built.
3rd Century BC – military expansion.
295BC - The Romans defeat the Italians and Samnites.
Rome now controls from coast to coast and population now reaches between 60-90,000.
End of 3rd Century BC – coins and writing introduced.
288 BC – first overseas war against Pyrrhus. From North Greece supported by anti Roman Italians.
The Romans did not plan to conquer Italy or neighbours – there were no maps then. More about control of people than territory. The defeated were integrated, provide soldiers and had a stake therefore in the Empire. Hostages to ensure good behaviour.

8. Carthage and Rome

9. The Punic Wars against Carthage
Started in Spain over the silver refining city of Saguntum.
First Punic War – 264 – 241BC. Rome gains Sicily and later Sardinia and Corsica.
2nd Punic War 218 – 210 BC. Hannibal invades Italy.
216 BC – Battle at Cannae.
3rd Punic War – 149 – 146BC
The spoils of war – bullion, slaves, bonuses for the soldiers. Enormous sums. Cash went into amenities and infrastructure.
167BC Rome became tax free. Pompey later on gained enough loot to feed 2 million people for a year. 250 wagon loads of paintings and sculptures – 750 vessels of silver.
Debates over ostentatious luxury.
Not all military conquest – much of it by invitation. Foreign lobbyists in Rome.

10. Hannibal scares the Romans
The Battle of Lake Trasimene
The Battle of Cannae

11. After the Punic Wars – discord at home
113 BC Tribune Gracchus killed. Distribute land to the poor. Subsidised grain for the poor. Killed by Senators who lost their land.
Violence at home becomes the norm.
88BC – Sulla takes Rome and a reign of terror starts. The lists – Senators put their enemies names on it. Prices on heads. Dies in bed 78BC
73BC Slave war – Spartacus.
3 men come to the fore – Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. The gang of three. JC – the charisma, P – The Army and C the money.
49BC – Julius Caesar leaves Gaul leaving a million dead behind him. Crosses the Rubicon.
Crassus killed in Parthian War (border of Turkey and Syria).
Julius and Pompey fight it out in central Greece. Pompey flees to Egypt where he is murdered.

12. The Roman Army
Recruits came from all over the Empire. At its peak in Augustus’s time there were probably 250,000 soldiers in the army.
Recruits has to be 20 years old and remained in service for 20 years.
Soldiers were not supposed to be married.
On retirement soldiers would be given pay and land usually in the outlying provinces.
There were about 30 legions in the Roman army. Each legion had between 4,000 and 6,000 soldiers, called legionaries. Each legion had ten cohorts. Each cohort was made up of six troops of about 80 legionaries, called centuries. Centuries were led by a centurion and the legion was lead by a Legate.
Auxiliaries were nor Roman citizens, were paid one third of the legionaries and were mostly used as guards.
Equipped with a short sword (Gladius) and a javelin with a bendy tip. Also had a rectangular shield, a metal helmet and leather armour.

13. The Roman Army

14. A roman fort – a temporary encampment

15. Julius Caesar
In Gaul from 58BC to 49BC. Rarely in Rome thereafter. Only 5 months in 45BC. Very popular with his troops but took work to the Coliseum.
Assassinated on 15th of March 44BC as he was about to leave with 100,000 troops to attack the Parthians. He was leaving his underlings in charge – Senators outraged.
Legacy – fixed calendar at 365 days.
Created overseas colonies for the Roman poor.
Reduced food bill at home.
Road maintenance, traffic management.
Pardoned those who fought for Pompey.
Statues of him everywhere – suggestions of kingship. Dictator for life.
With his death a tyrant was removed but not tyranny.
Caesar’ assassins eventually removed after battle with Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian.

16. Julius Caesar and Augustus

17. Octavian becomes Augustus
Came to power in 27BC after defeating Brutus and Cassius armies at the battle of Philipa. Antony flees to Egypt and Cleopatra – defeated by Octavian in 30BC. Romans did not want an Egyptian as their ruler. Antony treated Alexandria as if it was Rome itself. Died in 14AD.
Inherited a fortune from Julius Caesar. Bad teeth and platform shoes.
Micro manager – what people should wear. Replaced Army Generals regularly. Cash for retired soldiers – 12 times year’s pay. His own money or the states? Removed soldiers’ dependence and loyalty to the Generals – Armies often a long way away and few in Rome itself apart from Praetorian guard.
Building programmes – “I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble”. The Empire now a state of 12 million? Rome itself 1 million people.
Military victories – Parthians return the standards. Egypt stays Roman. The Empire extends into the Sahara and the North Sea – delegations from India – Empire without limit?

18. Augustus dies
The month of Sextilis now named after him. Julius had July.
Treated Senators with respect – made the into an arm of the administration.
9AD 3 legions lost in Germany – a signal to stop expanding?
Married to Livia in 37BC but no children. He had a daughter Julia, Livia had Tiberius. Tiberius forced to marry Julia leaving behind a wife he loved. 2BC Julia exiled over her behaviour. Augustus was just as bad despite imposing morality on everyone else.
She was the daughter of the Emperor Augustus, stepsister and second wife of the Emperor Tiberius, maternal grandmother of the Emperor Caligula and the Empress Agrippina the younger, grandmother-in-law of the Emperor Claudius, and maternal great-grandmother of the Emperor Nero.
Augustus died August 19, 14 AD – was he poisoned by Livia to make way for Tiberius? Poisoned figs on the tree?

19. The 14 Emperors – Tiberius – 14 AD to 37 AD
A good military commander in Germany.
Feared popularity of Germanicus his nephew. Adopted son of Augustus
Secretive, lacked charm
Could see in the dark.
Recluse on Capri – rarely in Rome. Not interested in government
Paranoid – threw people of cliffs – strangled them.
A likely paedophile.
Died and then smothered by Macro and Caligula? Left a fortune to Caligula adoptive grandson.

20. Caligula – 37 AD to 41 AD “bootikins”
A bad sleeper and a profligate spender
Spent all of Tiberius’s inheritance.
Sex mad – even with his sisters
Proposed making his horse a consul – road across boats, shell collecting
Certifiably insane
Killed by guard whom he persisted in calling “girlie”
Loyal German guards killed Senator who had just made an animal sacrifice.

21. Claudius – 41 AD to 54 AD The reluctant emperor – a stammerer.
Born in Gaul – the first outsider.
Conquered Britain.
Married to Messalina – executed for plotting.
Married Agrippina and adopted her son Domitius who then changed his name to Nero.
Died in 54 AD poisoned by Agrippina who thought he was going to make Brittanicus his heir ( his child with Messalina)

22. Nero – 54 - 68 AD. “An angler in the lake of darkness”
Agrippina clearly wished to rule through Nero, and her portrait briefly appeared on the coins alongside his.
Tried to drown his mother.
Cruelty – a brawler in his youth. Orgies and drunkenness.
Tortured Christians – a sadist.
Greek tastes for boys, poetry, art – delusions of grandeur. Great fire 64AD – to make room for his new place?
Suicides – “what a great artist the world loses in me”

23. The year of four emperors – 69 AD
Galba – 7 months. 73 year old – no charm, old fashioned , homosexual who liked older men. No bonuses for the army. Simple life style but sinister and mean. An arrogant disciplinarian – assassinated.
Otho – only 3 months. A friend of Nero’s. From the stinginess of Galba to his luxuriousness. Nero stole h is wife. Not warlike and a poor leader of troops. No self confidence – committed suicide.
Vitellius – 8 months. No tact, no military experience and a glutton. Victimised by Tiberius? At war with Vespasian in the East . Executed.
Vespasian – ten years to 79AD. Restored peace and stability. Suppressed the Jewish revolt AD. Left son Titus in charge in Judea. First man to improve after becoming Emperor. Restored discipline in the Army as well as State Finances. Started building the Coliseum and got on very well with the Senate. Set an example with a simple life. Sense of humour – on his deathbed “Oh dear, I think I am becoming a God”.

24. The five good emperors

25. then the good ones, Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius
Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Officially declared by the Senate optimus princeps ("the best ruler"), Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history, leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death.
Hadrian – Spanish, openly gay and the consolidator of Empire – lover of all things Greek. Reign – 117 AD to 138 AD. Pulled his troops out of Iraq (Mesopotamia), built the wall in Scotland. Savagely suppressed the Jewish Revolt of 130 AD. Abolished some of Trajan’s harsher decrees.
Marcus Aurelius – the philosopher emperor. Reign 161 – 180 AD. Ruled Jointly with Verus till he died in 169 AD and then with his son Commodus from 177 AD. A stoic philosopher he did much to improve the condition of the poor through law. A great ombudsman – the gold age of Rome.
Followed by Commodus - corrupt, hated , part time gladiator. Ruled from 180 – 192 AD – the start of the decline.

26. The crisis of the 3rd Century AD
From 235 – 284 AD.
Roman Armies suffer three crushing defeats as Sassanid ( Persian Empire) expands at the expense of Roman territory.
Repeated wars over the next 50 years as 26 Generals jockey for power.
Add to that Smallpox and plague outbreaks.
Dacia (Romania)is abandoned in 271 AD.
Greater threats emerge from Germany
Rival camps in Hispania and Gaul within the Empire.
Aurelian restores the Empire in 274 AD.  During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. The Empire was the further stabilised by Diocletian – who split the Empire into East and West in 293 AD. He took the East in Anatolia near the Persian border. Restores efficient government after the anarchy of the 3rd Century. A magnificent administrator – also last persecution of the Christians.

27. City life

28. City life
Fire and flood were constant worries. No fire control or fire services. Usually it meant demolishing houses.
No police force so vigilantes or a few big mates was accepted as the way to do things.
Authorities could be petitioned but they were usually swamped by cases.
The law was out of reach for most. So the poor turned to the supernatural, curses against thieves, fortune tellers, shrines to the Gods etc.
Crime could cost you your savings or your tools. Home invasions were not uncommon. The rich had security guards (slaves) but lived with the others . There were no rich suburbs.
Insulae for the poor and middle class – the better off had the lower floors while the very bottom often served as a takeaway window.
Literacy was probably around 20% in the Empire – slightly higher in Rome.
Most spoke a vulgar Latin – not classical Latin and in the East spoke Greek from the 4th Century onwards.

29. City life – the forum

30. Husbands and wives
The state played no part in marriage if you said you were married – you were.
The rich had ceremonies – the bride usually wore yellow.
There were dowries from the father of the bride which had to be returned in case of divorce.
Women had more freedom than those in Athens – still they had to go to the back of the theatre. Standing up in the theatre.
Men and women did dine together unlike their Greek counterparts.
A woman did not have to take the husband’s name and could own property.
Every woman had to marry – no maiden aunts here. First marriage round 14 or 15.
Childbirth a big killer – often pregnant but deformed babies “exposed”. Half of all children died by age 10 from the usual childhood diseases.

31. Christians and the Romans
Systematic persecution in the 3rd Century but not all provincial authorities necessarily carried out the Emperor’s edicts vis a vis the Christians.
Nero blamed them for the great fire.
Became the official religion of Rome in the 4th Century after Constantine died in 337 AD.
Started as a radical Jewish sect. When it separated from Judaism no one knows. Early Christians were often confused with Jews in the official records.
Rome incorporated foreign Gods but was puzzled by Christianity's exclusiveness. ISIS from Egypt, Mithras from Persia etc
Christianity rejected the Gods that made Rome a success.
Stubborn – would not sacrifice to the Emperor. Pacifist – would not join the army. Not pulling their weight.
Christianity was able to spread thanks to the Roman Empire and Roman roads.
Martyrdom probably “talked up “ by early Christian writers.

32. Thrown to the lions?

33. Mithraism- Rome’s Persian faith
Mithra has the following in common with the Jesus character:
Mithra was born on December 25th of the virgin Anahita.
The babe was wrapped in swaddling, placed in a manger - attended by shepherds.
He was considered a great travelling teacher and master.
He had 12 companions or "disciples."
He performed miracles.
As the "great bull of the Sun," Mithra sacrificed himself for world peace.
He ascended to heaven.
Mithra was viewed as the Good Shepherd, the "Way, the Truth and the Light," the Redeemer, the Saviour, the Messiah.
Mithra is omniscient, as he "hears all, sees all, knows all”
He was identified with both the Lion and the Lamb.
His sacred day was Sunday, "the Lord's Day," hundreds of years before the appearance of Christ.
His religion had a Eucharist or "Lord's Supper."
Mithraism emphasized baptism.

34. Rich and Poor – Plebeians and Patricians
After the expulsion of the kings, Rome was ruled by its aristocrats (roughly, the patricians) who abused their privileges. This led to a struggle between the people (plebeians) and the aristocrats that is called the Conflict of the Orders. Wealthy Romans spoke Greek and had Greek tutors.
The plebeians were the merchants, farmers, and craft workers of Rome. 
494BC Plebeians revolt – Tribunes appointed to safeguard their welfare.
287 BC – the law now applies to all. Enslavement for debt abolished – plebeians could even become consuls.
Magistrates, judges, and priest of the new republic mostly came from the patrician order, or upper class. Lots of bosses now for the Plebeians. A dictator was welcomed as just one ruler over them.
The Army needed men and so plebeians were able to extract some concessions.
Slaves not counted – they may have made up one third of the Roman population.

35. Patricians and Plebeians (95% of the population)

36. The rich and the poor
The rich became rich by gaining money from estates spread across the Empire. Mines, industrial properties and farms. Working for a living was considered “dishonourable”
Yet Romans officially disapproved of luxury. Nevertheless they looked down on the “Nouveau riche” and their pretensions to high status.
Housing was luxurious – different dining rooms for different seasons, courtyards, central heating, running water, swimming pools and expensive mosaics.
But no wealthy suburbs – no Mayfairs.
Streets were narrow, crowded and loud.
Pandemics common – e.g. Smallpox and the plague in the Second Century.
Bath houses help spread infection.
The archaeology of Rome is what the rich left behind.

37. Housing for the rich

38. The Poor The other 95%. Most lived outside Rome.
The truly poor, the homeless, the criminals, escaped slaves etc often lived in cemeteries.
Most lived above shops with the poorest the highest up in the insula where there were no cooking facilities or washing. The lower floors were more spacious and expensive.
The poor unskilled often worked on the docks or in construction.
Rooms were often rented by multiple workers – day and night shift arrangements.
Work started when you were young. The young mason and his tools. Worked until you died unless you were in the Army.
Work associations – not union or guilds – paid for your funeral.
Hard physical work – textile workers worked in urine.
Lots of bars, cheap cafes, drinking dens (wine with hot water) dice and brawls popular.
The poor ate bread, vegetable soup and porridge – meat was a luxury.

39. A roman street

40. Slaves Often captured in wars but could also be ought from the poor.
Were included in the family. Were often freed when no longer able to work. Slaves could buy their freedom by raising money equivalent to the purchase price.
In the first Century AD perhaps up to 30% of Rome were slaves.
By the 2nd Century most Romans could find a slave somewhere in their back ground.
The wealthy kept Greek Tutors to educate their children.
Some treated badly while others lived in luxury.
Cicero had 20 slaves including several “readers”.
Children of slaves became slaves in turn.
Slavery caused economic problems – mass unemployment. The start of “Bread and circuses”.
73 BC – the Slave revolt of Spartacus.

41. Why the roman Empire collapsed
It was all the Christians fault – Edward Gibbon (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire). Shifted focus way from the glory of the State
Invasions by Barbarian tribes. 410 – Visigoth. 476 Alaric and the Goths – do not even kill the last Emperor Romulus Augustulus. Late 4th Century Goths cross the Danube to escape the Huns.
Economic troubles and overreliance on slave labour. supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up. A further blow came in the fifth century, when the Vandals claimed North Africa and began disrupting the empire’s trade by prowling the Mediterranean as pirates. The rich flee to the countryside and avoid tax.
The rise of the Eastern Empire. The gulf between the two grows
Overexpansion and military overspending which defunds infrastructure.
Government corruption and political instability. Generals and the loss of faith.
Weakening of the Roman legions. The rise of the mercenaries.
They just did not care enough any more.

42. The Goths reach Rome 410AD

44. What did the Romans ever do for us?
The Empire by which all others are measured.
Government
Law
Architecture
Engineering and Construction
English and the Romance languages.
Christianity
Oh and:
Concrete, central heating, aqueducts, paved roads and highways, public health, literature, sewers and sanitation, the Julian Calendar, republican government, The Senate, arches, public baths, metallurgy and glass blowing etc And this

45. Roman names Three parts
A personal name – Gaius – about 30 in common use. Female names denoted with an “a” – e.g. – Julius – Julia, Antony – Antonia, Octavius – Octavia etc
A clan name – Julius. There were some 35 clans in all
Family name – Caesar
Honorific – Africanus
The son of Marcus became Marcus filius or later Marcius, Sextus becomes Sextillius etc.
First names the most commonly used and the full name was only used in formal occasions.

46. Reading guide