1. Griswold v. Connecticut Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Ch. 25: The Sixties,
Bay of Pigs invasion
Civil Rights Act
Cuban missile crisis
Freedom Rides
Great Society
Griswold v. Connecticut
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Hart-Celler Act
Roe v. Wade
Tet offensive
The Feminine Mystique
Voting Rights Act
War on Poverty

2. I. The Freedom Movement

3. A. The Rising Tide of Protest
The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Rides in 1961.
Led to the ICC desegregating buses and terminals.
As protests escalated, so did the resistance of local authorities.
James Meredith: admitted to Ole Miss by court order, September 1962

4. B. Birmingham The high point of protest came in the spring of 1963.
Martin Luther King Jr. led a demonstration in Birmingham, Alabama.
"Letter from Birmingham Jail"
King made the bold decision to send black school children into the streets of Birmingham.
Bull Connor unleashed his forces against the children.
The events in Birmingham forced white Americans to decide whether they had more in common with fellow citizens demanding their basic rights or violent segregationists.
Medgar Evers

5. C. The March on Washington
The March on Washington was organized by a coalition of civil rights, labor, and church organizations
28 August 1963, 250,000 black and white Americans
The March on Washington reflected an unprecedented degree of black-white cooperation in support of racial and economic justice, while revealing some of the movement's limitations and the tensions within it.
MLK’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech

6. II. The Kennedy Years

7. A. Kennedy and the World
Kennedy's agenda envisioned new initiatives aimed at countering communist influence in the world.
Peace Corps: 15,000 members by 1966
Space program: man on the moon in 1969
Kennedy failed at ousting Castro from power in Cuba.
Bay of Pigs: CIA led effort to incite a popular uprising against Castro
1400 invaders: 100 killed, 1100 captured

8. B. The Missile Crisis
The most dangerous crisis of the Kennedy administration came in October 1962, when American spy planes discovered that the Soviet Union was installing missiles in Cuba capable of reaching the United States with nuclear weapons.
In 1963, Kennedy moved to reduce Cold War tensions.
Limited Test-Ban Treaty
“No government or social system is so evil that its people must be considered lacking in virtue.”

9. C. Kennedy and Civil Rights
Kennedy failed to protect civil rights workers from violence, insisting that law enforcement was a local matter.
The events in Birmingham in 1963 forced Kennedy to take more action.
“We preach freedom around the world…but are we to say to the world, and much more importantly to each other, that this is a land of the free except for Negroes?”
Kennedy was shot on November 22, 1963, in Dallas.

10. III. Lyndon Johnson’s Presidency

11. A. The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Immediately after becoming president, Lyndon Johnson identified himself with the black movement more passionately than any previous president.
“We have talked long enough about equal rights in this country. It is now time to write the next chapter and write it in the books of law.”
In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act.
Prohibited racial discrimination in employment, institutions like hospitals and schools, and privately owned public accommodations such as restaurants, hotels, and theaters.
Also banned discrimination on the grounds of sex.

12. B. Freedom Summer
The 1964 law did not address a major concern of the civil rights movement-the right to vote in the South.
Freedom Summer was a voter registration drive in Mississippi.
Schwerner, Goodman, and Chaney
Freedom Summer led directly to the campaign by the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).
Fannie Lou Hammer

13. C. The 1964 Election
Lyndon B. Johnson's opponent was Barry Goldwater, who was portrayed as pro-nuclear war and anti-civil rights.
He was stigmatized by the Democrats as an extremist who would repeal Social Security and risk nuclear war.

15. D. The Conservative Sixties
With the founding in 1960 of Young Americans for Freedom (YAF), conservative students emerged as a force in politics.
Sharon Statement
Racial divisions would prove to be a political gold mine for conservatives.

16. E. The Voting Rights Act
In 1965, King led a group in a march from Selma to Montgomery.
The federal government took action when there was violence against nonviolent demonstrators.
1965 Voting Rights Act: allowed federal officers to register voters
Twenty-fourth Amendment: outlawed the poll tax

17. F. Immigration Reform
The belief that racism should no longer serve as a basis of public policy spilled over into other realms.
Hart-Cellar Act, 1965: abandoned the national origins quota system of immigration. Established new, racially neutral criteria for immigration, notably family reunification and possession of skills in demand in the US
Limit of 120,000 on newcomers from Western Hemisphere
170,000 for the rest of the world
Taken together, the civil rights revolution and immigration reform marked the triumph of a pluralist conception of Americanism.

18. G. The Great Society
Johnson outlined the most sweeping proposal for government action to promote the general welfare since the New Deal.
Unlike the New Deal, however, the Great Society was a response to prosperity, not depression.
Provided health services to the poor and elderly
Poured funds into education and urban development
Department of Transportation
Department of Housing and Urban Development
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
The National Endowment for the Humanities and for the Arts
National public broadcasting network

19. H. The War on Poverty
The centerpiece of the Great Society was the crusade to eradicate poverty.
Michael Harrington's The Other America (1962)
In the 1960s, the administration attributed poverty to an absence of skills and a lack of proper attitudes and work habits.
The War on Poverty concentrated on equipping the poor with skills and rebuilding their spirits and motivation.

20. I. Freedom and Equality
Johnson's Great Society may not have achieved equality as a fact, but it represented a remarkable reaffirmation of the idea of social citizenship.
Coupled with the decade's high rate of economic growth, the War on Poverty succeeded in reducing the incidence of poverty from 22 percent to 13 percent of American families during the 1960s.

21. IV. The Changing Black Movement

22. A. The Ghetto Uprisings
The 1965 Watts uprising left 35 dead, 900 injured, and $30 million in property damage.
By the summer of 1967, violence had become so widespread that some feared racial civil war.
Kerner Report: result of segregation and poverty
With black unemployment twice that of whites and average black family income little more than half the white norm, the movement looked for ways to "make freedom real" for black Americans.
Bill of Rights for the Disadvantaged
In 1966, King launched the Chicago Freedom Movement, with demands quite different from its predecessors in the South.
The movement failed.

23. B. Malcolm X
Malcolm X had insisted that blacks must control the political and economic resources of their communities and rely on their own efforts rather than working with whites.
After a trip to Mecca, Malcolm X began to speak of the possibility of interracial cooperation for radical change in the United States.
Assassinated February 1965

24. C. The Rise of Black Power
Black Power immediately became a rallying cry for those bitter over: the federal government's failure to stop violence against civil rights workers, white attempts to determine movement strategy, and the civil rights movement's failure to have any impact on the economic problems of black ghettos.
The idea of Black Power reflected the radicalization of young civil rights activists and sparked an explosion of racial self-assertion.
Inspired by the idea of black self-determination, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and CORE repudiated their previous interracialism, and new militant groups sprang into existence.
Black Panther Party

25. V. Vietnam and the New Left

26. A. Old and New Lefts
What made the New Left new was its rejection of the intellectual and political categories that had shaped radicalism for most of the twentieth century.
The New Left's greatest inspiration was the black freedom movement.
Same basic assumptions: the evils to be corrected were deeply embedded in social institutions and that only direct confrontation could persuade Americans of the urgency of far-reaching change.

27. B. The Fading Consensus
The years 1962 and 1963 witnessed the appearance of several path breaking books that challenged one or another aspect of the 1950s consensus.
The Fire Next Time-black revolution
Silent Spring-environmental costs of urban growth
The Other America-persistence of poverty amid plenty
The Death and Life of Great American Cities-urban renewal criticism
The Port Huron Statement offered a new vision of social change.
Freedom meant participatory democracy.
In 1964, events at the University of California at Berkeley revealed the possibility of a far broader mobilization of students in the name of participatory democracy.

28. C. America and Vietnam
“The greatest miscalculation in the history of American foreign relations.”
Fear that the public would not forgive them for losing Vietnam made it impossible for Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to remove the United States from an increasingly untenable situation.

29. D. Lyndon Johnson’s War
Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution in 1964, authorizing the president to take "all necessary measures to repel armed attack" in Vietnam.
Although Johnson campaigned in 1964 against sending U.S. troops to Vietnam, troops arrived in 1965.
By 1968, the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam exceeded half a million and the conduct of the war had become more and more brutal.

31. E. The Antiwar Movement
As casualties mounted and U.S. bombs poured down on North and South Vietnam, the Cold War foreign policy consensus began to unravel.
Opposition to the war became the organizing theme that united all kinds of doubts and discontents.
The burden of fighting fell on the working class and the poor.
SDS began antiwar demonstrations in 1965.

32. F. The Counterculture
As the Sixties progressed, young Americans' understanding of freedom increasingly expanded to include cultural freedom as well.
Liberation was a massive redefinition of freedom as a rejection of all authority.
The counterculture in some ways represented not rebellion but the fulfillment of the consumer marketplace.

33. G. Personal Liberation and the Free Individual
To young dissenters, personal liberation represented a spirit of creative experimentation, a search for a way of life in which friendship and pleasure eclipsed the single-minded pursuit of wealth.
The counterculture emphasized the ideal of community.
The countercultures' notion of liberation centered on the free individual.
Sexual freedom

34. VI. The New Movements and the Rights Revolution

35. A. The Feminine Mystique
The public reawakening of feminist consciousness came with the publication in 1963 of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique.
Opens with a portrait of talented, educated women trapped in a world that viewed marriage and motherhood as their primary goals; a “comfortable concentration camp.”
The immediate result of The Feminine Mystique was to focus attention on yet another gap between American rhetoric and American reality.
The law slowly began to address feminist concerns.
1966 saw the formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW), with Friedan as president.
Demanded equal opportunity in jobs, education, and political participation; attacked the “false image of women” portrayed by the media

36. B. Women’s Liberation
Many women in the civil rights movement concluded that the treatment of women in society was not much better than society's treatment of blacks.
The same complaints arose in SDS.
By 1967, women throughout the country were establishing consciousness-raising groups to discuss the sources of their discontent.
The new feminism burst onto the national scene at the Miss America beauty pageant of 1968.
“freedom trash can”-filled with objects of “oppression”: girdles, bras, high heeled shoes, copies of Playboy and Cosmopolitan
Bra burners

37. C. Personal Freedom
Women believed that "the personal is political," thus permanently changing Americans' definition of freedom.
Sexual relations, conditions of marriage, standards of beauty were as much political questions as the war, civil rights, and class tensions
Radical feminists' first public campaign demanded the repeal of state laws that underscored women's lack of self-determination by banning abortions or leaving it up to physicians to decide whether a pregnancy should be terminated.

38. D. Gay Liberation
Gay men and lesbians had long been stigmatized as sinful or mentally disordered.
The sixties transformed the gay movement.
Harry Hay: homosexuals were “the one group of disadvantaged people who didn’t even think of themselves as a group.”
Stonewall Bar
1969 police raid in NYC’s Greenwich Village where gays fought back, leading to five days of rioting

39. E. Latino Activism
The movement emphasized pride in both the Mexican past and the new Chicano culture that had arisen in the United States.
Closely linked to labor struggles
Cesar Chavez
Led a series of nonviolent protests to pressure growers to agree to labor contracts with the United Farm Workers Union

40. F. Red Power
Truman and Eisenhower had sought a policy known as "termination," meant to integrate Native Americans into the American mainstream; but it was abandoned by Kennedy.
Indian activists demanded not simply economic aid but greater self-determination.
American Indian Movement
Indians of All Nations
Red Power movement

41. G. Silent Spring
The new environmentalism was more activist and youth-oriented and spoke the language of empowering citizens to participate in decisions that affected their lives.
Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962) spurred the movement.
Environmentalism attracted the broadest bipartisan support of any of the new social movements, despite vigorous opposition from business groups that considered its proposals a violation of property rights.
April 22, 1970: Earth Day
Closely related to environmentalism was the consumer movement, spearheaded by the lawyer Ralph Nader.

42. H. The Rights Revolution
Under the guidance of Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Court vastly expanded the rights enjoyed by all Americans.
In 1957, the Court moved to rein in the anticommunist crusade.
The Court continued to guard civil liberties in the 1950s and 1960s.
In the 1960s, the Court continued to push toward racial equality.
Loving v. Virginia (1967): bans on interracial marriage unconstitutional
The Court simultaneously pushed forward the process of imposing on the states the obligation to respect the liberties outlined in the Bill of Rights.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Miranda warning
Baker v. Carr (1962): districts electing members of state legislatures must be equal in number

43. I. The Right to Privacy
The Warren Court outlined entirely new rights in response to the rapidly changing contours of American society.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): overturned a state law prohibiting the use of contraceptives
Roe v. Wade (1973): created a constitutional right to terminate a pregnancy

44. VII. 1968

45. A. A Year of Turmoil
The sixties reached their climax in 1968, a year when momentous events succeeded each other with such rapidity that the foundations of society seemed to be dissolving.
Tet offensive
Lyndon Johnson withdrew from the 1968 election.
Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated.
Robert Kennedy was assassinated.
Chicago Democratic National Convention

46. B. The Global 1968 1968 was a year of worldwide upheaval.
Massive antiwar demonstrations took place.
Second wave feminism
Our Bodies, Ourselves

47. C. Nixon’s Comeback
The year's events opened the door for a conservative reaction.
Richard Nixon campaigned as the champion of the silent majority.

48. D. The Legacy of the Sixties
The 1960s produced new rights and new understandings of freedom.
Allowed the entrance of numerous members of racial minorities into mainstream American life
Changed what Americans expected from their government
Undermined confidence in national leaders
As the country became more conservative, the Sixties would be blamed for every social ill
Yet, during the 1960s the US had become a more open and tolerant country