English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008

English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008
Nina Remor (LN) Hauptstudium ‘Talking Proper - The Rise of Accent As Social Symbol’ by Lynda Mugglestone

Accent as Social Symbol OR The rise of prescriptivism in the 18th and 19th century
18th and 19th century: new popularity of elocution Shift in the role of accent as part of social definition  non-localized accent as dominant social symbol Class-dialect vs. local dialect Spoken language: pronunciation

Establishment of a ‘standard’
14th century: speaking French as symbol of superiority (language of the court) vs. English  ‘rude and barbarous’ Choice between two languages rather than between two varieties or different ways of pronouncing one word Absence of a standard: all regional varieties not only spoken, but also written

Shift in London English (variety) from dialect to a non-localized, super ordinate language other dialects were displaced from the written association of literacy with superiority metropolitan vs. provincial; political, legal, administrative, commercial and cultural centre

Ideal standard language: ‘maximum variation of function’ with a ‘minimal variation of form’ late 14th century: use of English in government and law biblical translation 17th century: use in intellectual discourse

How should a standard be used?
John Dryden: ‘The foundation of the rules is reason’  criteria based on logic, ‘mathematical thinking’

Ideology of standardization
Also applied on pronunciation, e.g. classifying sounds 17th-18th century: shift from defining the ‘best dialect’ (Christopher Cooper, phonetician) to a ‘displacement of all inferior forms of speech’ (Thomas Sheridan)

Ideology of standardization
Description vs. prescription  standard = conjunction of ‘status’ and ‘codification’ of English based in the capital used by those with access to the ‘best’ London society

Written vs. spoken standard
written: supra-localized, for those of good standing and education spoken: influenced by social factors  localized to a larger degree though based in the nature of language, variation was to be resisted  encouragement rather than inhibition regarding prescriptivism

Written vs. spoken standard
shift of tolerance concerning accent variability codifying of spelling and grammar vs. variation in pronunciation 18th century: nature to be reformed by reason and art  polishing and refining the language matter of public as well as private responsibility; national as well as social honour state of language = mirror of state and nation

Intended effects of a standard
Place of origin predefines accent Attempt to formulize one pronunciation for each word eliminate distinctions, create new equality of speech by prescriptive means  accent difference being removed with adoption of a new still social and geographical barriers inhibit spread of ‘proper’ norms  accent as a social symbol creating exclusivity and exclusion instead of intended equality

Problems of acquisition
No ‘method’ Linguistic legislation (grammar, lexis) inapplicable to spoken English

Suggestions Acquisition by books as well as conversation
Pronunciation as part of the taught language by the end of 18th century

Technical problems No interest in proprieties of accent before, therefore pronunciation not indicated in dictionaries Samuel Johnson: first to print an accent above the particular syllable Later dictionaries: vowel length indicated by a macron (-) for long and a contras-tive breve (ˇ) for short  inadequate with regard to the recent developments at the time

Technical problems William Kenrick to be the first one to add set of small numerals above the letters to work out the details Sheridan combined this in General Dictionary of the English Language (1780) by respelling the word; e.g. choke- tshòke

Technical problems Once the pronouncing dictionary was instituted, the demand was high Predominant part of society could not purchase copies due to their income Desire for a more economical format  due to problems in ‘performance’, more conscientious application than occasional reference

Technical problems  pronouncing dictionaries as
Elimination of features by individual industry  pronouncing dictionaries as essential tool not only in the private household but also in libraries and educational institutions

Naïve beliefs Recognition of a standard automatically involved a non- or sub-standard Non-localized accent no longer symbol of egalitarianism but most potent social symbol ever

Noah Webster’s ‘perfect liberty’
Sameness of pronunciation produces political equality only in theory Impossible in reality, ‘idea in the mind’ Provides new sets of inequality instead ” ‘perfect liberty’ can only rest in the descriptive acknowledgement that all varieties of the language are equal, same to their speakers”

Noah Webster’s ‘perfect liberty’
Accent as a social symbol fare more complex than ‘good’ or ‘bad’ Differences indicate more than social status, e.g. group membership, solidarity, inclusion/ exclusion etc  society not one-dimensional Dichotomy between patterns and attitudes

Results Heterogeneity rather than homogeneity mark linguistic usage in multi-dimensional society Any sort of prescription will not affect any change Language varies regionally, socially and contextually

End of ´Accent as Social Symbol Presentation‘
Thank you for your attention!!!

´Talking Proper`- 18th century prescriptivism
English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008 ´Talking Proper`- 18th century prescriptivism Sociolinguistic stereotypes: The ´elegant`vs the ´vulgar`speaker Andrea Wolff (LN) Hauptstudium

18th century prescriptivism
Pre-1700: views preceding prescriptivism 1700: Age of Sheridan & Walker The ´elegant`speaker The ´vulgar`speaker Sociolinguistic value of prescriptive rules

1) Pre-1700: views Aims: protect English from change (Jonathan Swift)
Authors: content to describe enunciation & fluctuations marking its use

2) 1700: Age of Sheridan & Walker
18th century: age fascinated by prescriptive ideology Accent as marker of social identity Need for ´standardization`to clarify linguistic insecurities Stated correlations of accent and rank social & linguistic stereotypes

2) 1700: Age of Sheridan & Walker
Johnson: linguistic ideal of written and spoken language ´in harmony` Thomas Sheridan ( ) & John Walker ( ): Notable elocutionists: authors of works on elocution, rhetorical grammars, dictionaries (with pronunciation guides)

An extract from Walker´s Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791)

3) The ´elegant`speaker
Sheridan & others : ´doctrine of subjective inequality` Sociolinguistic stereotypes in the speech community Accent as image of speaker´s inner qualities

3) The ´elegant`speaker: Ascriptions
Masters art of good enunciation Is a gentleman, metropolitan = London Is part of ´best` society, has kept ´good` company Is of class & status, politeness, refinement Is ´cultivated & elegant`, well-bred Keeps language ´pure`= social responsibility Pronounces with accuracy sign of culture & intelligence Respects aural & social sensibilities of speakers: uses non-localized accent

3) The ´elegant`speaker: Repercussions
Social pressure: Model for emulation Has to use: definite number of sounds to be uttered with precision, distinctness, in proper places Excludes the ´provincial` Educated status regardless of real level of education. Is hunted by people wanting to be fashionable or members of ´beau monde` Even ´gentry`not immune from charges of social disgrace

4) The ´vulgar`speaker:
´Vulgarity`: effective epithet of prescriptive censure – a major prescriptive weapon applied to variants regarded with disfavour within prescriptive tenets of correctness. Commonplace of comment on pronunciation Is a person simply not knowing the correct forms of language (misapplies sounds, mars or alters them).

4) The ´vulgar`speaker: Ascriptions
Walker: ´vulgar`= plebeian, suiting lower people; ´mean`= wanting dignity, of low rank/birth, low-minded, base, despicable; low in the degree of any property, low in worth. ´grating`sounds of provincial discourse, rough, unpleasant, vicious, ludicrous, awkward, sub-standard, illiterate, uninformed, ignorant, incorrect, ugly, bad and wrong, no manners, has kept ´bad`company „provincialisms have no place in cultivated speech“ Sociolect: lower-class speech of London

4) The ´vulgar`speaker: Repercussions
Social pressure: social consequences might ensue Mastering the standard improves one´s lot in life (R. Hickey,2007) Negligence: social & political disadvantages due to ´provincial`accent Has perpetual ambition to achieve higher social level Falls victim to hypercorrection: reveals linguistic insecurity & willingness to receive ´proper` language

5) Sociolinguistic value of prescriptive rules
Embody formulations of attitudes to language use indicators of social views of ´correctness`: influences stereotyping and hypercorrection; both important variables in style-shifting Depict social importance of language Censure: often a reaction to observable changes in progress in a language: shows attitudes to accent & sound changes in progress ´helped`an emerging phonetic science

Conclusion: 18th century prescriptivism
Sociolinguistic stereotypes evolved from language attitudes (the ´elegant` & ´vulgar`speaker, the lady, the gentleman & many more) Real direction of linguistic change did run counter to prescriptive propaganda; proper pronunciation still important in Great Britain today Disjunction between standardization as process and as ideology; prescriptive fictions advocated by Sheridan, Walker and others Nevertheless valuable documents of historical changes in English language, attempts of transcription, language attitudes and pronunciations in the 18th century

End of presentation on 18th century stereotypes
Thank you for your attention!!!

h-dropping: Important signs of social status Manuela Behrendt (RC) Hauptstudium

h-dropping: Important signs of social status
19th and 20th century correct pronunciation of h most important signal of social identity ↓ ↓ presence of h in initial positions loss of h = educated and polite = vulgar and lower class

Old English: in native words the grapheme <h> could be realized as phoneme [h] e.g.: hand horse house in loan words h was not realized at all e.g.: horrible humour Middle English: no realization of h in metrically stressed words e.g.: hand height

Accents: part of new ideals of speech Heightened responsiveness to external markers of social status Thomas Sheridan (in 1762): h-dropping part of language in counties correct use of h part of London accent = the standard Standard: set up oppositions between educated and false/ metropolis and provincial James Elphinsten: the loss of h in words like: human, humour and humble = not historical suggested to spell those words without h: e.g.: humbleness – umbleness by 1860’s role of h consolidated still further now an h had to be pronounced whenever and wherever it was spelled

The ability of pronouncing the h correctly was also connected with a person’s reputation for learning E.g.: George Vandenhoff in Lady’s Reader in 1862 : “Nothing so surely stamps a man as below the mark in intelligence, self-respect and energy as this unfortunate habit”

By the end of the 19th century only the words honest, honour and hour (and derivatives) remained h-less

The Development of the [g]-sound
English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008 The Development of the [g]-sound Marlene Kralemann TN Studienbuch, Reading course) Hauptstudium, 7. Semester LA Gym/Ge

Introduction The Development of the [g]-sound 1. What it means today
2. What it meant in former times 3. What it means in phonetic terms 4. The “Dropped Letters”

The Development of the [g]- sound
[g] like in gun, egg, get, ghost, guess [ŋ] like in walking, sing, uncle [n] like in no, funny, now

Today vs. Former Times Today: Standard to use [ιŋ] like in walking

Today vs. Former Times In former times:
Traditionally used without the [g] Standard to use [ιn] like in walkin‘

Poetry in the mid-18th century
Contemporary rhyming around 1791: doing ► ruin delight in ► fighting

In Phonetic Terms: Change from: [n] = alveolar nasal voiced
To: [ŋ] = velar nasal voiced ([g] = velar voiced)

Manner of Articulation Kind of Consonant:
[g] ► plosive [n] ► nasal [ŋ] ([m])

The Development [ιn] became the lower class pronounciation
[ιŋ] was declared as polite and intentionally statusful

The “Dropped Letters” [h] ► prominent examples for social divide [g]
(intrusive [r] as another phenomenon in this context) ► markers of social divide

Sandra Boschenhoff (RC) Hauptstudium

[a:] & [æ] Pronunciation as well as orthography can change within a society as a result of being differently employed by a person of status. As a consequence it might be regarded as vulgar or inaccurate. People adopt the prominent person’s dialect/way of speaking. The formerly established usage gently deviates. (Cf. William Cramp, 1838)

[a:] & [æ] Seems hyberbolic, but:
The realisation of the phoneme /a/ in words such as fast or path changed to the pronunciation recommended by e.g. Thomas Sheridan. [a:] becomes [æ] The reason: the actress Sarah Siddons adopted it.

Sarah Siddons * July 5, 1755 in Brecon, Wales; † June 8, 1831 in London Most famous tragic actress of the 18th century Best-known for her version of Shakespeare’s Lady Macbeth Cultural icon in the mid-1780s

[a:] & [æ] Fashion plays an important role in the formation of patterns within a language.  Development of a strict submission to the fashion that is dominant at a given time in society. Evaluative patterns common within perceptions of the nuances of status also evolve according to fashion

‘Talking Proper’ – intrusive [r]
English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008 ‘Talking Proper’ – intrusive [r] Claudia Fischer (RC) Hauptstudium

Intrusive [r] - definition
Intrusive [r] describes the interposed [r] sound in constructions in which it does not occur in the spelling Law of (/lɔ:r əv/) Or word internally as in Drawing room (/drɔrɪŋ ru:m/)

Intrusive [r] - development
The development is closely linked to the vocalization or loss of the [r] sound in final position By these means words like ma and mar, pa and par, stalk and stork become identical e.g. ma and mar are articulated as /ma:/ in non-localized accents

In connected speech, when followed by a vowel sound, mar will retain its [r] sound Linking [r] Further examples: Far: far from (/fɑ: frəm/) far away (/fɑ:r əweɪ/)

This can also happen word internally: e.g. fear (/fɪə/) and fearing (/fɪərɪŋ/) Linking [r] is used as a ‘sandhi phenomenon’ = alteration of sounds due to adjacent sounds securing a smoother transition between two adjacent vowel sounds

Intrusive [r] develops analogically Its use is exactly parallel to that of the inoffensive linking [r] It appears in identical phonetic environments After /a:/ (catarrh), /ɔ:/ (law) and /ə/ (Laura)

This leads to commonly stigmatized sounds like the interposed [r] sound in constructions like Law of (/lɔ:r əv/) Drawing room (/drɔrɪŋ ru:m/) From a phonetic point of view words like fear (/fɪə/) and idea (/aɪdɪə/) are identical in their closing sounds

Therefore it would be natural for them to behave in the same way in connected speech Fear of (/fɪər əv/), idea of (/aɪdɪər əv/) Prescriptive point of view: Orthographical disparities evident within their written forms made idea of (but not fear of) untenable within ‚proper‘ English

Intrusive [r] - stigmatization
B.H. Smart A Grammar of English Sounds, 1812 Intrusive [r] included in his catalogue of features defining the ‚vulgar‘ and the ‚well-bred‘ speaker Vulgar: „He annexes the sound r to the vowel sound denoted by aw, in jaw, paw, saw“ Well-bred: perfect correlation between spoken and written forms

Alford A Plea for the Queen‘s English, 1864 Wants to eliminate the intrusive [r] from educated speech Equates it on the level of ‚incorrectness‘ with the dropping of the [h] „It is enough to make the hair of any but a well-seasoned Cockney stand on end.“

A.J. Ellis Tenth Annual Address of the President of the Philological Society, 1881 Usually a descriptive linguist rather than a prescriptive Intrusive [r] is a ‚non-permissive trill‘, ‚the very height of vulgarity‘, marks ‘uneducated‘ and ‚illiterate‘ people

„Illiterate speakers – those who either do not know how to spell, or ignore the rules of spelling in their speech – usually interpose an [r] between any back vowel and a subsequent vowel.“

J. Hullah The Cultivation of the Speaking Voice, 1870 Intrusive [r] as ‚insufferably vulgar‘ and as a „characteristic of cockney breeding, as Maidarill (for Maida Hill) – not unpardonable in an omnibus conductor, and Victoriarour Queen – quite unpardonable in an educated gentleman“

Notions of status and affiliations with the social hierarchy are readily manipulated by the standardising ideology Erecting an idealised ‚best‘ form of the language, employed by those higher in social order Contrasting it to a constructed erroneous and ‚illiterate‘ flawed form of English

Intrusive [r] – ‘real facts’
This dividing chasm between ‚educated‘ and ‚uneducated‘ speakers was a prescriptive fiction Stigmatization mainly socially motivated Language as a means to broaden this chasm

H. Sweet A Primer of Spoken English, 1890 „I know as a fact that most educated speakers of Southern English insert an [r] in idea(r) of, India(r) Office etc. in rapid speech, and I know that this habit, so far from dying out, is spreading to the Midlands; and yet they all obstinately deny it.“

Use of intrusive [r] was widespread Transcribed in the speech of ‚eminent preachers and University professors‘ in the 1880 Even those who traditionally exemplified notions of RP and its non-localized norms featured it in their everyday speech Still trying to avoid it in their more formal registers

Using intrusive [r] has social consequences Although many people use it, they deny using it to avoid the stigmatization

Intrusive [r] – today Intrusive [r] still appears as a marker of the social divide Language attitudes can remain remarkably constant even in the face of linguistic reality

Intrusive [r] – today Standard ideology today
Intrusive [r] is not a feature of the ‚best English‘ Even though speakers of mainstream RP make use of it where circumstances require

Intrusive [r] – today Speakers of adoptive RP (who did not use this accent as children) avoid it They are subject to the manipulations of the standard ideology and its notions of correctness

Intrusive [r] – today Wells Accents of English, 1982
„In native-speaker RP it is usual to use sandhi [r] in the appropriate places, in the environments where it is ‚intrusive‘ (unhistorical, not corresponding to the spelling) just as in those where it is not.“ It would be natural to use it, but as it‘s stigmatised people tend to avoid it

Intrusive [r] – today This results in the suppression of most sandhi [r]s Modern speakers of adoptive RP are heirs of the prescriptive censure and stigmatisation of the 19th century Illustrates the effects of stigmatisation upon those sensitive to their appeal

Ladylike Accent and the Feminine Proprieties of Speech Gülsen Öngören (LN) Hauptstudium

Table of Contents Introduction to Lady & Gentleman
Differences between Lady & Gentleman Role of a woman in society as a mother as a wife Role of the Language Ann Fisher The „New Woman“

Introduction The Lady and her male counterpart, the Gentleman had profound influence on propriety, behaviour, and correctness throughout 18th & 19th centuries they were recognized by their “high-bred bearing &grace of manner” meaner faults, e.g. listening at doors or looking into letters, were regarded as impossible in gentleman or lady

Differences between Lady & Gentleman
higher standards of behaviour & virtue associated presciptions & proscriptions were laws leisure hours: arrangement of the voice, singing, dancing,deportment appearance is more important than knowledge high standards of behaviour & virtue associated presciptions & proscriptions were options leisure hours: botany, geology, chemistry, or music are evaluated by what they do

Role of a Woman she must not work for profit
she has to look upon herself as a gentlewoman seperate herself from social inferiors was considered as a „ familiar household companion“ „ Proper Lady“ should have propriety, modesty, delicacy and virtue woman is to be more virtuous than man manuals were published by writers which characterized these social icons guardian of morals & language in the evenings women read out of books the home was the most central aspect „angel of the house“ Appearance is foregrounded; stick to framework

Role of a Woman she was considered „a help-meet to man“, therefore maiden´s education was directed towards these ends a „good“ wife was a linguistic & moral exemplar „the only way women can rise in the world is by marriage“ she had to improve her skills as a mother she was very important for her children´s education (her habits are made the models of theirs) a mother should never teach something that will have to be unlearned it was the mother´s fault if the child made mistakes in speech

Role of the Language integral role in the social & cultural definitions of a lady her virtues should also be reflected in her speech „best“ non-localized markers of speech „purity“ of accent, pronunciation and good spelling never to trip into the vulgarism of mispronouncing words status, propriety, purity and refinement were reflected in a lady´s use of language „grace of speech“ made a woman more attractive accent must be carefully controlled there could be no instrument more sweet than the voice of woman dialect was a disgrace arrangement of the voice (emphasis; articulation; inflection..) soft, gentle, and low

Example: papa (bilabial plosive)
a lady gave her „proper“ speech to her children (impressions in childhood are never to be obliterated) language was also important in other social roles like in that of a wife, and mother In their speech they had to follow certain rules which you could find in some manuals like the absence of /h/ e.g. ate, ´ock, and nedache; or pronounciation of /ŋ/;/r/ women use higher frequencies in [h] and [ŋ] and lower ones of [Ø] and [n] Correct sound of a: short a [æ] vs. [a:] in later periods the middle sound was introduced [æ:] There were slight changes from presciptive & proscriptive norms to descriptive norms ( every speaker has individualities) Edward´s study

Ann Fisher ( ) Ann Fisher was one of the most innovative and influential grammarians „A New Grammar“ (1750 (1745?)) Wrote on education of children Opened up a ladies´ school in (1745) where reading, writing, and sewing were taught Her school was not only for middle and upper class women, but also for working class women Moved away from the latinate tradition and created new terminologytive: Traditional terminology New terminology substantive/noun name pronoun relative name nominative case of pronoun leading state objective case of pronoun following state adjective quality tense time auxiliary helping verb

The „New Woman“ Concepts began to change in the late 19th century
„New Woman“ resembled a threat to the established behavioural norms and ideals including those of language there was an anti-feminine feeling they modified their actual linguistic behaviour

References Beal, Joan C. 2004. English in Modern Times. London: Arnold
Hickey, Raymond „Telling people how to speak“ (Third Late Modern English Conference. Leiden. 30 August – 1 September ) Mugglestone, Lynda ´Talking Proper`. The Rise of Accent as Social Symbol. Oxford: Clarendon

English since Shakespeare Prof. R. Hickey WS 2007/2008

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