1. Virtue Ethics Revision

2. So we are concerned with the moral agent, rather than the moral act – CHARACTER BASED ETHICS
Deontological and teleological ethicists think that right behaviour comes before right character. Virtue theory puts this the other way round – right character comes before right behaviour.
Virtue theory believes it is only by becoming better people that we will do the right thing.
Virtue theory is concerned about the process of how to become a moral person. Once you have become a moral person, you will do the right thing.

3. Aristotle – context
Ancient Greece – 4th century BCE. Greek citizens/rulers of the city were his model for virtues – he refers to these people as ‘serious human beings’ and some of the virtues he considers essential are specifically relevant for this context.
He believed that you could acquire the ability to be moral. This acquisition of knowledge rather than innate knowledge is known as a posteriori. You must use your reason to do this.

4. Ancient Greece Education (only for wealthy males); universities
War between states
Development of society
Democracy

6. Eudaimonia The final goal/purpose of human life
Translated to ‘happiness’ but this is not totally accurate – it means more like flourishing, contentment etc.
This end goal is recognised by the wise but others focus on lesser goods, such as physical pleasure, money or honours given by society. For the wise, there is pleasure in doing virtuous acts – ‘virtuous acts are pleasurable in themselves.’

7. The distinctive nature of humans is a rational soul
Aristotle believed that there were two aspects of the human soul – non-rational and rational. The non-rational soul has moral virtues (virtues of character) such as courage and generosity. These are formed by practice and are learned by following the example of others.
The intellectual virtues (linked to the rational part of the soul) are things like understanding and justice, which are developed through study and reflection.
Virtuous people combine moral and intellectual virtues; they must choose to act virtuously and understand what they are doing. A virtuous person is one who habitually acts virtuously, not one who does occasional good acts – they achieve happiness in their virtuous act, not in external reward.

8. habit Virtues will only develop naturally in a minority of people.
Therefore the doctrine of the mean helps people to work out what is the correct action they should take.
People need to be EDUCATED in the virtues and the doctrine of the mean.
Then they need to practise using the doctrine of the mean to help them work out the correct thing to do.

9. Moral Virtues Connected to the irrational part of the soul
Can only be cultivated through habit
Aristotle specified twelve moral virtues (some of which we saw earlier)
Vice (deficiency)
Virtue
Vice (excess)
Cowardice
Courage
Rashness
Insensibility
Temperance
Licentiousness
Illiberality
Liberality
Prodigality
Pettiness
Generosity
Vulgarity
Pusillanimity
Magnanimity
Vanity
Lack of ambition
Proper ambition
Ambition
Lack of spirit
Patience
Irascibility
Understatement
Truthfulness
Boastfulness
Boorishness
Wittiness
Buffoonery
Cantankerousness
Friendliness
Obsequiousness
Shamelessness
Modesty
Shyness
Malicious enjoyment
Righteous indignation
Envy

10. Intellectual virtues Connected to the rational part of the soul
Can be cultivated through instruction
There are 9 intellectual virtues:
Primary virtues –
Art or technical skill
Scientific knowledge
Prudence or practical wisdom
Intelligence or intuition
Wisdom
Secondary virtues –
Resourcefulness or good deliberation
Understanding
Judgement
Cleverness

11. Acquiring virtues – two paths to eudaimonia
Moral Virtues:
Characteristics of behaviour and attitude contributing to a good person.
For example: courage, patience, friendliness, truthfulness, a sense of justice.
Intellectual Virtues:
Characteristics of thought and reason contributing to a good person.
For example: practical wisdom, technical skills, scientific skills, intelligence.
Eudaimonia:
The final goal of all human activity, experienced in 3 possible ways:
Pleasure
A spiritual sense of well-being
Honour
Living and working for others
Reflection
The pursuit of knowledge

12. The doctrine of the mean
The mean = the point between the vice of excess and the vice of deficiency. The ‘mean’ is personal to each individual, so will be different for different people in different situations.
E.g. courage (excess = recklessness; deficiency = cowardice). In any situation requiring courage there is a ‘mean’ which is right for the individual and for the situation. Those who show the virtue of courage are NOT brave because of fear of punishment or hope or reward, or unaware of what might happen to them. Bravery is shown because that is a virtue and that is what virtuous people do.

13. E.g. Temperance – according to Aristotle this refers to self control over physical appetites such as for food or sex. The excess in this area is reckless self-indulgence , the deficiency would be excess damaging control (but Aristotle comments that when people go wrong it is always by going to excess). The mean is ‘enough and no more’ relative to the needs of the person.
The person who can judge the ‘mean’ for any virtue relative to the person and the situation is ‘a person of practical wisdom.’

15. Four groups of people Virtuous people:
Incontinent people:
face moral conflict but usually choose a vice.
Virtuous people:
enjoy doing good so face no moral dilemma.
Continent people:
do the virtuous thing most of the time but have to overcome moral dilemma.
Vicious people:
do not attempt to be virtuous.
Habit is important that Aristotle believed there were four groups of people in society.

16. The virtuous person does not need help
Incontinent people:
Virtuous people:
Continent people:
Vicious people:
The virtuous person does not need help
The other three groups of people need to practise the virtues.

17. What exactly is meant by philosopher is not known.
It could be an academic philosopher but it is more likely to be a person who contemplates life. Thinks deeply and is not overly concerned with material goods.
The philosopher
Aristotle picks the philosopher because he thinks that they exercise key intellectual virtues than enable a person to steer their life towards eudaimonia.
People cannot be virtuous without being a philosopher and as a result they can not reach eudaimonia.
HEDONIST
POLITICIAN
INCONTINENT LIFE
EUDAMONIA
PHILOSOPHER
VIRTUOUS LIFE
EUDAMONIA

18. Modern Revival - Perspective 1: Anscombe
Elizabeth Anscombe initiated the modern revival of virtue theory with her paper ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ in 1958.
She was critical of moral theories which associate good with actions rather than with people.
She was against a consequentialist approach – the consequence of the action being the only important thing (where something is good by its result).

19. Perspective 1: Anscombe
“The concepts of obligation, and duty – moral ‘ought’, ought to be jettisoned.”
These are parts of ethics which no longer have a basis as many are based around the idea of a creator God which we have (largely) abandoned.
She said the idea of ethics defined as some legalistic principles (rules) needs to be changed.
Ethics is too concerned with this act and that act being immoral, when it should be concerned with who you are.

20. Elizabeth Anscombe
Believed that other theories, whether act or consequence based, did not have the foundation to provide moral guidelines.
She believed that they each relied on the idea of punishment and reward, either by a divine law-giver or by their consequences.
Therefore Anscombe believed that older systems couldn’t provide a basis as guidelines for the moral life.

21. Perspective 1: Anscombe
This was just as true for utilitarian ideas of the greatest good for the greatest number as it was for Kant’s deontological categorical imperative.
Anscombe proposed a different way of studying ethics.
We should think about the idea of a virtue and human flourishing, referring back to Plato and Aristotle.
Further development was necessary in understanding what we mean by virtue.

22. Perspective 2: MacIntyre
In 1981, Alasdair Macintyre wrote a book called ‘After Virtue’ in which he argued that we should give serious consideration to Aristotle’s theory of Virtue Ethics.
In his book, he traced the history of virtue ethics and tried to establish a system of virtue ethics for the modern age.
His basic complaint was that modern ethics put too much emphasis on reason and not enough stress on people, their characters and the contexts of their lives.

23. Perspective 2: MacIntyre Homeric virtues
MacIntyre noticed that as societies developed 2,500 years ago, so different virtues developed too.
In the age of Homer, a poet who told the story of the Iliad and the Odyssey, the following virtues were paramount;
Physical strength
Courage
Cunning
Friendship
These are known as the HOMERIC VIRTUES
What do you think of the Homeric Virtues?

24. Perspective 2: MacIntyre Athenian virtues
Eventually, as cities (the polis) developed, life slowly became more civilized.
Aristotle developed his theory of virtues for the city of Athens and his virtues became known as the Athenian Virtues. They were as follows: 
Courage
Friendship
Justice: retributive (getting what you deserve) and distributive (making sure that the goods of society are fairly distributed)
Temperance
Wisdom
The emphasis on strength and cunning, needed in time of war, was gone.
MacIntyre argued that the Athenian virtues of Aristotle were the most complete.

25. Perspective 2: MacIntyre The virtues
MacIntyre realised that whilst the theorists in universities were trying to work morality out, society still needed virtuous people in everyday life
people who run jumble sales to raise money for the local hospital, for example.
MacIntyre argued that despite the theories of people like Kant and Hume, the virtues have lived on.
What’s more, society depends for its very existence upon people who exhibit the virtues.

26. Perspective 2: MacIntyre
MacIntyre argued that living a virtuous life depended upon
Getting into the habit of being moral
Striving towards being virtuous
He argued that this can give life an overall purpose and meaning.
The virtues for MacIntyre are any human quality which helps us to achieve the ‘goods’ in life.
But this generally has to be ‘real’ goods – not just superficial
HABIT
INTENTION

27. Perspective 2: MacIntyre vice
MacIntyre also warned that being virtuous does not prevent you from being open to vices.
He gives the example of a great violinist who could be vicious,
Or a chess player who could be mean spirited.
While the good qualities of these people are virtuous, their vices would prevent them from achieving maximum virtue.

28. Perspective 2: MacIntyre The most important virtues
MacIntyre suggests that the three most important virtues are:
justice
courage
honesty
We can only achieve moral excellence through practising these three.
They are core virtues that help to prevent organisations and institutions from becoming morally corrupt.
It is largely through institutions that traditions, cultures and morality spread: if these institutions are corrupt, then vices become widespread.

29. Application
Truthfulness: This is discussed by Aristotle in the context of how people should present themselves in society. The excess is boastful exaggeration, the deficiency is self-depreciation, the mean is presenting yourself as you are.
The virtue of truthfulness also means keeping promises, dealing honestly with people and admitting failings. This is the natural character of a virtuous person, their general disposition and tendency, but it does not mean they will never tell a lie.

30. The virtues of friendship and loyalty to friends may be balanced against the honesty and truthfulness you should show to others (depending on the situation). That could allow someone using Virtue Ethics to lie in order to protect her Jewish friends from the Nazis. The lie does not change her underlying virtuous character, but her rationality allows her to change the mean.
Can you think of other scenarios in which lying is a possible course of action? How many situations can you think of where lying could be justified by Virtue Ethics?

31. Theft
Aristotle taught that theft was ‘base action’ and that anyone doing it was ‘in error.’ However, there is no record of what he may have said had he considered a scenario where starving people have no option but to steal food, or where leaving someone in possession of a dangerous weapon would lead to slaughter
It is important to stress the difference between stealing for personal gain, and stealing for the benefit of loved ones or society as a whole.
What if the person with all the money had got it by cheating and stealing – would the virtue of justice allow those made poor by these actions to steal it back?
If a madman had the passwords for a safe containing a huge cache of weapons, would the virtues of justice and friendship justify stealing those passwords?

32. Some key strengths
Holistic: takes a broad view of the individual – reason, emotion, social relationships and context.
Person-centred: it values moral character and requires moral judgements and equips people with the tools needed to make these choices.
Benefits society: there is a shared view of virtues so all are united in their pursuit and value those who display them. Eudaimonia is the shared goal and requires friendship between people.
Flexible: the doctrine of the mean recognises differences between situations and people.

33. Some key weaknesses
It ignores cultural relativism: societies have different ideas about what is virtuous, and within one modern society there may be different groups with different understandings of virtues.
People may not naturally respect and emulate people of virtue: They may consider the balanced mean to be dull and boring and prefer to be non-conformist and individual.
Modern relevance: Aristotle wrote Nicomachean Ethics for 4th century BCE noblemen – how relevant is that for today? How can this method of moral decision-making respond to dilemmas raised by 21st century medical technology for example?