1. The social self

2. 1. Self-concept 2. Self-esteem 3. Self-presentation
The social self
1. Self-concept 2. Self-esteem 3. Self-presentation

3. 1. Self-concept Self-concept and self-schema
The sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her personal attributes
Self-schema:
A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self- relevant information
Example body image, wide range of events triggers self-concept
Example liberals
Cognitive, emotional, behavioral
Cogntive (how to peole know themselves), how do they evaluate themselves and how do they control their self-images

4. 1. Self-concept Recognizing yourself – Beginnings of a self concept
Beginning of self-concept
Apes can recognize themselves in the mirror (red dot test, Gordon Gallup
Later dolphins, elephants
Children begin to recognize themselves in the mirror in between 18 and 24 month.
Cocktail-party effect, even infants develop this tendency
The Lost Self: Pathologies of the Brain and Identity (T. Feinberg, J. Keenan (2005), neurological basis to the self
Pick food out of their teeth, started grooming themselves, blow bubbles, make faces
"I'm 4. I have blue eyes. I'm shorter than Mommy. I can help Grandma set the table!" When asked, young children can also describe their self-concept in simple emotional and attitude descriptions. Seth may go on to say, "Today, I'm happy. I like to play with Amy." However, preschoolers typically do not link their separate self-descriptions into an integrated self-portrait. In addition, many 3-5 year olds are not aware that a person can have opposing characteristics. For example, they don't yet recognize that a person can be both "good" and "bad“
Frontal lobe, reight hemisphere, doubling people, not reckognizing friends or ones own home

5. 1. Self-concept Understanding the self through introspection?
Introspection: looking inward at one’s own thoughts and feelings, self-report, meditation, psychotherapy, religion, dream analysis, hypnosis.
Is introspection the key to knowing oneself? Common belief
Research shows introspection is sometimes diminishes accuracy of self-report
People tend to overestimate their emotional reaction to future positive and negative events (D. Gilbert, 2005), Example election
Dunning (2005) people think they are better than average
Durability Bias: we tend to overestimate how long some emotion will last. We don’t know our own coping mechanisms until we face something without preparation.
Impact Bias (overestimating strength of emotional reaction)

6. Class activity - Happiness
Form groups One member tries not to laugh while one other member tries to make him/her laugh. Another member takes the time. Take turns and see who can refrain from laughing longest. (Do not speak, just use facial expressions)

7. 1. Self-concept Self-perception: Facial feedback hypothesis
Based on self-perception theory, the facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can produce –not just reflect—an emotion state (smiling can cause us to feel happy). James Laird (1974)
Consider two examples of participants: Everyone is shows the same humorous material, like cartoons, comedy sketches, the only difference is one group is asked to hold a pen in their mouth, and one is asked to hold a pen in their teeth.
But it’s unclear if the emotion occurs via self- perception or because facial expressions trigger physiological changes that produce the emotional response. We tend to assume, if I’m happy, I will smile. Bem says, “if you smile, you will conclude you are happy”. 
Facial expression not necessary for emotion. Example Facial paralysis

8. 1. Self-concept Experience of emotions through previous arousal
Schachter and Singer proposed that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal. Two-factor Theory of Emotion
Philological arousal can also distort introspection

9. 1. Self-concept Experience of emotions through previous arousal Experiment
Injected male subjects with adrenaline, they were told it was a vitamin supplement, and either explained the effects or did not. Subjects were either in the presence of an angry confederate, or happy confederate. If the participants are informed about the injection, when they start feeling it (they’ll remember the injection) they are less affected by what’s going on around them. But when they don’t have explanation, and look toward their environment for an explanation of their emotions –and they would take on the properties of the other person nearby. If physiological arousal is high and don’t know why, I’m likely to use cognitive interpretation to determine why they feel the way they do.

10. 1. Self-concept Self-perception and the over-justification effect
+) Also derived from self-perception theory, the over-justification effect shows that people sometimes lose interest in activities for which they were rewarded. Over-Justification Effect: The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors. (+) But if a reward is seen as a “bonus” for superior performance, then it can enhance intrinsic motivation by providing positive feedback Example experiment: Felt-tipped markers (Lepper, 1973) Verbal praise, present, no reward: Dropping a pen, Infants study (Tomasello, 2008) Individual differences: Depends on goal focus

11. 1. Self-concept Influences of other people Social comparison theory
+) According to social comparison theory, people often evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to similar others. Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954). Example: Judgement of art, 60 percent (below average), 40 percent (above average). How do you introduce yourself to a stranger? With whom do you compare yourself? How do we judge who we are? We evaluate ourselves based on other people. (comparing your test results to class results)
Mastery praise enhanced intrinsic motivation and social-comparison praise curtailed it when uncertainty about children’s subsequent performance was introduced (Study 1) and, for girls, even in situations of continued success (Study 2). Social-comparison praise also tended to discourage children from seeking subsequent self-evaluative normative information. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

12. Discussion: Article
What are the effects of downward comparison and upward comparison? Discuss with your classmates
Would you encourage your children to compare themselves? Did your parents compared you/asked you to compare yourself with others?

13. 1. Self-concept Autobiographical memory
 Remembering where you were on 9/11, who you were with, what you were wearing –these are not always accurate.
(+) Memory of one’s life events is critical to the self-concept. (+) When people recall life experiences, they typically report more events from the recent past than from the distant past, through some types of memories are generally more vivid and lasting than others. (+) Autobiographical memories are shaped by self-serving motives, and people overemphasize their own roles in their past events.
Culture and autobiographical memory: Example memory in collectivistic societies and individualistic societies

14. 2. Self-esteem

15. 2. Self-esteem
Evolutionary: Baumeister (2000) fear of social exclusion
(+) People have a need for high self-esteem and want to see themselves in a positive light. People with high self-esteem are often more motivated. They tend to sleep better, and remain independent (+) People with low self-esteem often find themselves caught in a vicious cycle of self-defeating behavior. People with low self-esteem may not only have social consequences, but also suppression and less ability to fight off illness.
Protecting self-esteem can be costly
Self-worth can be derived from different life domains, skills, people etc. How do you define your self-worth?
Self-esteem in certain areas more healthy
1) To connect with others & gain their approval 2) To cope with a basic fear of death (terror management theory)
Six Pillars of Self-Esteem
Nathaniel Branden claims that there are elements on which healthy self-esteem is based on

16. 2. Self-esteem Terror management theory
The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help to preserve their self-esteem.
When we’re reminded of our own mortality we tend to reassure our own beliefs
Experiment: Reaction to death in movies after people go positive feedback on a test, reaction muted
Text passage…

17. 2. Self-esteem Measuring self-esteem and self-efficacy
Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale:
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Schwarzer’s self-efficacy scale:
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp ). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.
(Neglect life domains)
Task:
Assess your self-esteem and self-efficacy
What is the difference between the concept of self-esteem and self-efficacy

18. 2. Self-esteem Distinguish among the actual, ought and ideal selves.
(+) Discrepancies between the actual selves: who we think we really are related to feelings of disappointment and depression. (+) Discrepancies between the actual and the ought selves: who we think we should be are related to shame, guilt, and anxiety.  Ideal: who we would like to be (+) These emotional effects depend on the amount of discrepancy and whether we are consciously focused on it.

19. What is meant by the “self awareness trap”?
In general, people spend little time actually thinking about themselves. (+) But certain situations (mirrors, cameras, audiences) increase self- awareness, and certain people are generally more self-conscious than others. (+) Self-awareness forces us to notice self- discrepancies and can produce a temporary reduction in self-esteem. Self-Awareness Theory: The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self- awareness or a change in behavior. The negative correlation between self- awareness and happiness. The more self- aware someone is, the unhappier they are.

20. 2. Self-esteem Explain Higgins’ Self-Discrepancy Theory
Protecting self-image can be costly
(+) Self-esteem can be defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves. Large self-discrepancies are associated with negative emotional states.
Self esteem can influence
Motivation
Sleep and health (immune system)
Independence

21. 2. Self-esteem Self serving cognitions
What are some strategies people commonly use to deal with the discomfort that often results from increased self awareness? Self-serving cognitions strategies people commonly use to deal with the discomfort that often results from increased self awareness (optimistic bias, etc.)
(+) To cope, we either adjust our behavior to meet our standards or withdraw from the self-focusing situation. (+) Heavy drinking can be viewed as a means of escaping from self- awareness.

22. 2. Self-esteem Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement
People protect self-esteem in 5 ways Self-serving cognitions, such as taking credit for success and denying the responsibility for failure; Self-Handicapping: Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure. BIRGing (Bask in Reflected Glory): To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful. CORFing (Cutting Off Reflected Failure): done by distancing themselves as far as possible from the losing team. These fans want to avoid any negative evaluations by others in relation to the team that was unsuccessful Downward Social Comparison: The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off then we are.

23. Self-control
Self-control may be a limited inner resource that can be depleted. Attempts at self- control can boomerang or backfire. Self control and decision making Article assignment

24. Ironic processes
Sometimes the harder we try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely we are to succeed. (+) Due to the operation of ironic processes, our efforts and self-control may also backfire, causing us to think, feel, and act in ways that are opposite to our intentions.

25. Self control and procrastination
Ted talk
Marshmallow Test

26. 3. Self-presentation

27. Self-presentation  what are the two general motives in self-presentation
The two general motives in self-presentation:  strategic self-presentation and self-verification. (+) Strategic self-presentation is the process by which we try to shape other’s impressions of us. (+) In social encounters, people often try to get others to see them in a positive light, as likable or competent, for example. (+) Apart from the desire to be seen in a positive light, people seek self-verification, a process by which we try to get others to perceive us “accurately”, as we see ourselves. (+) Research shows that self-verification motives often trump the desire to be seen in a positive light.
Self monitoring: Individuals differ in their tendency to regulate their behavior to meet the demands of social situations.

28. 3. Self-presentation Cross-cultural comparisons
Cross-cultural comparisons indicate that people from collectivist cultures present themselves as modest in their self-esteem relative to people from individualistic cultures. Collectivism: independence, cooperation, social harmony; one’s group membership is most important. (interdependence, cooperating with each other, social harmony, the nail that sticks our gets hammered), people tend to give credit to others and share (example concepts of envy) Individualism: independence, autonomy, self-reliance are valued; one’s personal goals take priority (It’s all about our personal goals)

29. 3. Self-presentation Differentiate between private self-consciousness and public self-consciousness
Private self-consciousness: A personality characteristic of individuals who are apply introspection, often attend to their own inner states. Public self-consciousness: A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others. Example: The man who mistook his wife for a hat (Case study: Oliver Sacks 1985)