1. Chapter 3 Learning and Memory
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, 8e Michael Solomon

2. Learning Objectives
When you finish this chapter you should understand why:
It’s important for marketers to understand how consumers learn about products and services.
Conditioning results in learning.
Learned associations can generalize to other things, and why this is important to marketers.
There is a difference between classical and instrumental conditioning.
We learn by observing others’ behavior.
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3. Learning Objectives (cont.)
Memory systems work.
The other products we associate with an individual product influences how we will remember it.
Products help us to retrieve memories from our past.
Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.
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4. The Learning Process Products as reminders of life experiences
Products + memory = brand equity/loyalty
Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience
Incidental learning: casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge
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5. Learning is a Process
Our tastes are formed as a result of a learning process, sometimes with painful results.
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6. Behavioral Learning Theories
Behavioral learning theories: assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events.
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Figure 3.1

7. Types of Behavioral Learning Theories
Classical conditioning: a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
Instrumental conditioning (also, operant conditioning): the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
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8. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov and his dogs
Rang bell, then squirt dry meat powder into dogs’ mouths
Repeated this until dogs salivated when the bell rang
Meat powder = unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because natural reaction is drooling
Bell = conditioned stimulus (UC) because dogs learned to drool when bell rang
Drooling = conditioned response (CR)
 Click to play
Pavlov’s dog game
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9. Marketing Applications of Repetition
Repetition increases learning
More exposures = increased brand awareness
When exposure decreases, extinction occurs
Example: Izod crocodile on clothes
However, too MUCH exposure leads to advertising wear out
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10. Discussion
In the 1980’s, the Lacoste crocodile was an exclusive logo symbolizing casual elegance. When it was repeated on baby clothes and other items, it lost its cache and began to be replaced by contenders such as the Ralph Lauren Polo Player.
Can you think of other logos that have lost their prestige due to repetition?
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11. Marketing Applications of Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus generalization: tendency for stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, unconditioned responses.
Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike packaging
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12. Discussion
Some advertisers use well-known songs to promote their products. They often pay more for the song than for original compositions.
Why do advertisers do this? How does this relate to learning theory?
How do you react when one of your favorite songs turns up in a commercial?
If you worked for an ad agency, how would you select songs for your clients?
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13. Instrumental Conditioning
Behaviors = positive outcomes or negative outcomes
Instrumental conditions occurs in one of these ways:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
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14. Instrumental Conditioning
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Figure 3.2

15. Instrumental Conditioning (cont.)
Reinforcement schedules include:
Fixed-interval (seasonal sales)
Variable-interval (secret shoppers)
Fixed-ratio (grocery-shopping receipt programs)
Variable-ratio (slot machines)
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16. Positive Reinforcement
The power of positive reinforcement.
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17. Cognitive Learning Theories: Observational Learning
We watch others and note reinforcements they receive for behaviors
Vicarious learning
Socially desirable models/celebrities who use or do not use their products
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18. Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Principles
Reinforcement of Consumption:
Thank you
Rebates
Follow-up phone calls
Frequency Marketing:
Reinforces regular purchases by giving them rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased
Frequent flyer miles
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19. Loyalty to Brands
Rewarding consumers with frequent flyer miles is an effective way to reinforce them and build brand loyalty.
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20. Cognitive Learning Theory
Is learning cognitive or not?
Learning conscious or not?
Expectations are created that a stimulus will be followed by a response, forming expectations require mental activity… so conditioning occurs based on conscious hypothesis
Evidence for non-conscious knowledge, (people do process at least some information in automatic passive way)
Respond to new stimulus according to existing categories
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21. Cognitive Learning Theory
Observational learning:
Occurs when people watch the actions of others and note reinforcements received for their behaviors
Learning occurs as a result of vicarious (on behalf), rather than direct, experience.
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22. Observational Learning (cont.)
Modeling: imitating others’ behavior
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Figure 3.3

23. Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles
Consumers learn vicariously by seeing others receive reinforcement for their behaviors.
Marketers can reinforce or punish consumers indirectly by showing what happens to desirable models who do or do not use their products.
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24. Role of Memory in Learning
Memory: acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed
Information-processing approach
Mind = computer and data = input/output
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Figure 3.4

25. The Role of Memory in Learning
Stages of Memory
Encoding stage
Information entered in a recognizable way
Storage stage
Knowledge integrated into what is already there and warehoused
Retrieval stage
The person accesses the desired information
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26. How Information Gets Encoded
Encode: mentally program meaning
The way information is encoded helps to determine how it will be presented
Brand name linked to physical characteristics of product, (e.g. Coffee-Mate…)
Types of meaning:
Sensory meaning, such as the literal color or shape of a package
Semantic meaning: symbolic associations, such as the idea that rich people drink champagne
Episodic memories: relate to events that are personally relevant
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27. Memory Systems
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Figure 3.5

28. Memory Systems Sensory Memory:
Very temporary storage of information we receive from our senses
Short-Term Memory (STM):
Limited period of time & limited capacity
Working memory (i.e., holds memory we are currently processing)
Long-Term Memory (LTM):
Can retain information for a long period of time
Elaboration rehearsal is required: Process involves thinking about a stimulus and relating it to information already in memory
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29. Associative Networks Activation models of memory
Associative network of related information
Knowledge structures of interconnected nodes
Hierarchical processing model
[See next slide for an example of an associative network]
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30. Associative Networks for Perfumes
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Figure 3.6

31. Spreading Activation
As one node is activated, other nodes associated with it also begin to be triggered
Meaning types of associated nodes:
Brand-specific
Ad-specific
Brand identification
Product category
Evaluative reactions
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32. Levels of Knowledge Individual nodes = meaning concepts
Two (or more) connected nodes = proposition (complex meaning)
Two or more propositions = schema
We encode info that is consistent with an existing schema more readily
E.g. Service scripts: A type of schema consisting of a sequence of events expected by an individual
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33. Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
Retrieving information often requires appropriate factors and cues:
Physiological factors (e.g. age)
Situational factors
Consumer attention; pioneering brand; descriptive brand names
Viewing environment (continuous activity; commercial order in sequence)
Postexperience advertising effects
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34. Retrieval for Purchase Decisions (cont.)
Appropriate factors/cues for retrieval (cont.):
State-dependent retrieval/mood congruence effect
Familiarity
Salience/von Restorff effect (mystery ads)
Visual memory versus verbal memory
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35. Pictorial versus Verbal Cues
There is some evidence for the superiority of visual memory over verbal memory.
Pictorial ads may enhance recall, but do not necessarily improve comprehension.
How many of these Ad icons can you remember from the picture alone?
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36. What Makes Us Forget? Decay Interference Retroactive versus proactive
Part-list cueing effect
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37. Products as Memory Markers
Furniture, visual art, and photos call forth memories of the past
Autobiographical memories
The marketing power of nostalgia
Retro brand: updated version of a brand from a prior period
Nostalgia index
Click image for
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38. Discussion
Marketers often evoke memories of the “good old’ days” by marketing products with nostalgic images. Though it seems this strategy targets only middle-aged or older consumers, it can be used toward college students.
What “retro brands” are targeted to you? Were these brands that were once used by your parents?
What newer brands focus on nostalgia, even though they never existed before?
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39. Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
Recognition versus recall
The Starch Test (A widely used commercial measure of advertising recall for magazines)
Problems with memory measures
Response biases
Memory lapses
Memory for facts versus feelings
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40. Discussion Ads with celebrities tend to have very high recall rates.
Name some ads with celebrities that you can recall easily. Why does the celebrity association with the ad aid your recall?
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41. Problems with Memory Measures
Response Biases
A contaminated result due to the instrument or the respondent, rather than the object that is being measured.
Memory Lapses
Unintentionally forgetting information:
Omitting: Leaving facts out
Averaging: “Normalizing” memories by not reporting extreme cases
Telescoping: Inaccurate recall of time
Memory for Facts Versus Feelings
Recall is important but not sufficient to alter consumer preferences
More sophisticated attitude-changing strategies are needed.
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42. Team homework!!
Within your teams, choose a product (e.g. GJU university)
Brainstorm and draw an “Associative network” for your team (3-5 levels detailed)
What is your conclusion?!
What nodes would you try to change? and how?
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