1. Lecture 10 Data Collection
Research Methodology
Lecture 10 Data Collection
Mazhar Hussain
Dept of Computer Science
ISP,Multan

2. Road Map Introduction Chosing your research problem
Chosing your research advisor
Literature Review
Plagiarism
Variables in Research
Construction of Hypothesis
Research Design
Writing Research Proposal
Writing your Thesis
Data Collection
Data Representation
Sampling and Distributions
Paper Writing
Ethics of Research

3. Data collection methods
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Records
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire

4. Methods of data collection
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources

5. Methods of data collection
Primary Sources
Information must be collected
First-hand information
Examples
Attitudes of community towards health services
Determining job satisfaction of employees

6. Methods of data collection
Secondary Sources
Information required is already available and need only be extracted
Examples
Use of census data to obtain information on the age-gender structure of a population
Use of hospital records to find out mortality patterns in a community
Use of an organization’s records to ascertain its activities

7. Collecting data using primary sources
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire

8. observation
Watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place
Examples
Learning about the interaction in a group
Study the behaviour or personality trait of an individual
In situations where full or accurate information cannot be collected by questioning

9. observation Two types Participant Observation Participant observation
Non-participant observation
Participant Observation
The researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observered
Examples
Study life of prisoners – pretend to be a prisoner
Examine the reaction of general public towards people in wheel chair – observe by sitting in wheel chair

10. observation Non-participant observation
The researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions
Examples
Study the functions carried out by nurses in the hospital – Watch, follow and record their activities

11. Problems with observation
When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed, they may change their behaviour.
Positive or negative – may increase or decrease productivity
Also known as Hawthorne Effect
Possiblity of observer bias
Interpretations drawn from observations may vary from observer

12. Recording the observation
Narrative
Researcher records a description of the interaction in his own words
Brief notes while observing the interaction – makes detailed narrative notes soon after the interaction
Advantage – Deeper insight
Disadvantage
Observer biased
Different observers – Comparability is difficult

13. Recording the observation
Scales
Observer develops a scale in order to rate various aspects of interaction or phenomenon
Recording is done on the scale
Does not provide in-depth information -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Negative
Netural
Positive

14. Recording the observation
Error of central tendency
If the observer is not very confident, may tend to avoid extreme positions on the scale using mostly the central part
Halo Effect
Error introduced when the way an observer rates an individual on one aspect influences the way he rates that individual on other aspects
Teaching – Performance in one subject may influence the impression on other subjects

15. Recording the observation
Categorical Recording
Record observations using categories
Type and number depend on the problem
Examples
Passive/Active
Sometimes/Never/Always
Strongly Agree / Agree / Uncertain / Disagree/ Strongly disagree
Same problems as with Scales

16. Recording the observation - Tools
Paper and pencil
Cheap, limited to writing speed
Audio
Users speak what they are thinking
Video – accurate and realistic
Advantage: Play back many times before drawing conclusion
Users may not behave naturally in front of camera

17. Recording the observation - Tools
Computer logging – automatically done
Large amounts of data difficult to analyze
User notebooks – User takes notes himself
Coarse and subjective
Good for longitudinal studies
Mixed use in practice
Audio/video transcription with paper record of significant events

18. Observation – Physiological methods
Eye Tracking
Physiological Measurements

19. Eye tracking
Head or desk mounted equipment tracks the position of the eye
Eye movement reflects the amount of cognitive processing required
Measurements include
Fixations: Eye maintains stable position. Number and duration indicate level of difficulty with display
Saccades: Rapid eye movement from one point of interest to another

20. Eye tracking

21. Physiological Measurements
These may help determine a user’s reaction to an intervention
Measurements include:
Heart activity, including blood pressure, pulse etc.
Activity of sweat glands
Activity in muscles
Activity in brain
Difficulty in interpreting these physiological responses - more research needed

22. Collecting data using primary sources
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire

23. Interviews
A person to person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
Can be:
Flexible
Interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions as they come to mind around issue being investigated
Inflexible
Strictly keep the questions decided before hand
Interviews are classified according to the degree of flexibility

24. Interviews Interviews Unstructured Structured Flexible Rigid
Different levels of flexibility
Unstructured
Structured
Flexible
Rigid

25. Unstructured interviews
Almost complete freedome in terms of content and structure
Freedom in sequence, wording and explanation of questions
Forumalate questions on the spur of the moment depending upon the context of the discussion

26. Structured interviews
Pre-determined set of questions
Same wording and sequence of questions as specified in the interview schedule
Written list of questions
Open ended
Closed ended

27. Collecting data using primary sources
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaire

28. Questionnaire
Written list of questions – answers are recorded by respondents
Respondents
Read the questions
Interpret what is expected
Write the answers
Contrary to interview – No one to explain the questions
Questionnaire must be clear and understandable

29. Interview vs. Questionnaire
Nature of Investigation
An issue - respondents may feel reluctant to disucss with an investigator – Questionnaire ensures anonymity
Examples: Drug use, criminal activities, personal info
Geographical Distribution of study population
Potential respondents – scattered over a wide area
Interviews – Too expensive
Type of study population
Illiteraute, very young or very old, handicapped – Interviews are a good option

30. Questionnaires Opening
In order to gain an understanding of the situation of employment in the country, we would like to ask some questions about your work history ………….
Example paras in your text book

31. Administrating a questionnaire
Mailed questionnaires
Send by mail – most common
Assumption – access to addresses of respondents
Also send a pre-paid self addressed envelope with the questionnaire
Accompanied by a covering letter
Problem – low response rate

32. Administrating a questionnaire
Collective Administration
Captive Audience – Students in a class, people in a function, participants in a conference
High response rate
Explain the purpose/questions

33. Administrating a questionnaire
Administration in a public place
Shopping centers, parks etc.
Slightly time consuming
Similar advantages as collective administrative

34. covering letter with questionnaire
Introduce yourself and institution
Objectives of study
General Instructions
Assure about anonymity of information
Provide contact number
Give a deadline/return address
Thank them for participation

35. Advantages of questionnaire
Less expensive
Save time, finances and human resource
Convenient and inexpensive
Collective administration – least expensive
Greater anonymity
No face to face interaction
Sensitive questions – likely to have more accurate responses

36. Disadvantages of questionnaires
Limited application
Study population that can read and write
Low response rate
People do not return questionnaires – 25 to 30%
Effective sample size will reduce
Selection bias
Those who returned may have attributes different from those who did not return
Findings may not be representative of population
Clarification of issues
Can not clarify the questions

37. Disadvantages of questionnaires
Spontaneous responses
Inappropriate when spontaneous responses are required
Questionnaire gives time to reflect before answering
Cosultation
Respondent may consult others – not own opinion
Influence of other questions
Respondent can see all questions before answering
Knowledge of other questions may affect the response to a question

38. Forms of questions Open Ended Questions Closed Ended Questions
Possible responses are not given
Answer in words of respondents
Example: What is your average annual income?
Closed Ended Questions
Possible answers in the questionnaire
Respondent ticks the appropriate choice
Under 10, 000
10, 000 – 19, 999
20, 000 – 39, 000
40,000 +

39. Open ended questions Provide in-depth information
Analysis is difficult
Respondent feel free – variety in information
Respondents may not be able to express themselves

40. Closed ended questions
Information lacks depth and variety
Researcher’s Bias – Only those choices are listed which researcher thinks are the possible answers
Ease of answering – ready-made list of responses
Ensure that required information is obtained
Analysis is easy

41. Considerations in fromulating questions
Use simple and everyday language
Avoid technical terms
Example: ‘Is anyone in your family dipsomaniac?’
Do not ask ambiguous questions
Are you satisfied with your canteen?
Which aspect: Service, prices, quality of food?
Do no ask questions based on presumptions
How many cigarettes do you smoke in a day?
Do not ask leading questions
Unemployment is increasing, isn’t it?

42. Considerations in fromulating questions
Do not ask double-barrelled questions
Question within a question
You do not know which particular question the user has answered
Some respondents may answer both the questions, others may answer only one
Example:
How often and how much time do you spend on each visit?
Does your department have a special recruitment policy of minorities and women?
YES – for both categories?

43. Collecting sensitive information
Direct Manner
May be offensive
Indirect Manner
Showing cartoons
Asking to pick up cards
Asking to complete sentences etc.

44. Collecting data from secondary sources
Government of semi-government publications
Census, surveys, economic reports
Earlier Research
Personal records
Historical and personal records
Mass media
Newspapers, magazines etc.
Ensure validity and reliability

45. References Research Methodology, Ranjit Kumar, Chapter 9
The material in these slides is based on the following resources.
References
Research Methodology, Ranjit Kumar, Chapter 9