1. Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 4
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Orientation to understanding:
Causes of human behavior
Treatment of abnormality
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

3. Biological Perspective
Assumed that disturbances in emotions, behavior, and cognitive processes are caused by abnormalities in the functioning of the body
Neurotransmitter: Chemical substance released from a neuron into the synaptic cleft it drifts across the synapse and is absorbed by the receiving neuron
The transmission of information throughout the nervous system takes place at synapses.
Synapses - Points of communication between neurons.
Psychologists believe that abnormalities in the body’s functioning are responsible for the symptoms of psychological disorders.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

4. Table 4.1 - Selected Neurotransmitters Involved in Psychological Disorders
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

5. Genetic Influences Genetic abnormalities can come about through:
Inheritance of particular combinations of genes
Faulty copying when cells reproduce
Mutations that a person acquires over the course of life
Causes of nervous system dysfunction range from genetic abnormalities to brain damage.
Genes control:
Manufacturing of neurotransmitters.
The way the neurotransmitters behave in the synapse.
How the brain’s structures develop throughout life.
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
Allele: One of two different variations of a gene.
Polygenic: Model of inheritance in which more than one gene participates in the process of determining a given characteristic.
Phenotype: The expression of the genetic program in the individual’s physical and psychological attributes.
Epigenetics: Science that attempts to identify the ways that the environment influences genes to produce phenotypes.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

6. Figure 4.1 - Pattern of Dominant-Recessive Trait Inheritance
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

7. Genetic and Environmental Influences
Endophenotypes
Relationships between genetic and environmental influences
Gene-environment correlations
Interactions between genes and the environment
Diathesis-stress model
Endophenotypes: Biobehavioral abnormalities that are linked to genetic and neurobiological causes of mental illness.
Gene-environment correlations exist when people with a certain genetic predisposition are distributed unequally in particular environments.
Passive exposure
When the parents treat the children with certain genetic predispositions in particular ways because their abilities bring out particular responses.
Niche picking
Gene-environment interactions occur when one factor influences the expression of the other.
Diathesis-stress model: Proposal that people are born with a predisposition that places them at risk for developing a psychological disorder if exposed to certain extremely stressful life experiences.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

8. Figure Epigenesis
Epigenesis: Process through which the environment causes them to turn “off” or “on.”
DNA methylation: Can turn off a gene as a chemical group, methyl, attaches itself to the gene.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

9. Contributions of Genetics to Psychological Disorders
Methods used
Family inheritance studies
DNA linkage studies
Genomics combined with brain scan technology
Family inheritance studies - Researchers compare the disorder rates across relatives who have varying degrees of genetic relatedness.
Genome-wide linkage study: Researchers study the families of people with specific psychological traits disorders.
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS): Researchers scan the entire genome of individuals who are not related to find the associated genetic variations with a particular disease.
Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP): Small genetic variation that can occur in a person’s DNA sequence.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

10. Treatment Psychotherapeutic medications Psychosurgery
Deep brain stimulation, also called neuromodulation
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Psychotherapeutic medications: Somatic treatments that are intended to reduce the individual’s symptoms by altering the levels of neurotransmitters that researchers believe are involved in the disorder.
Psychosurgery: Purpose of which is to reduce psychological disturbance.
Psychosurgery, or psychiatric neurosurgery: Neurosurgeon operates on brain regions, most likely responsible for the individual’s symptoms.
Deep brain stimulation (DBS): Neurosurgeon implants a microelectrode that delivers a constant low electrical stimulation to a small region of the brain, powered by an implanted battery.
Neuromodulation: Neurosurgery in which permanently implanted electrodes trigger responses in specific brain circuits, as needed.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Application of electrical shock to the head for the purpose of inducing therapeutically beneficial seizures.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

11. Table 4.2 - Major Psychotherapeutic Medications
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

12. Table 4.2 - Major Psychotherapeutic Medications
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

13. Trait Theory Personality trait
Five Factor Model
Provides a perspective for examining personality disorders
Trait theory approach proposes that abnormality occurs when the individual has maladaptive personality traits.
Personality trait: Enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and others.
Five Factor Model (also called “Big Five”): Trait theory proposing that there are five basic dispositions in personality.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

14. Figure 4.5 - Five Factor Model of Personality
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

15. Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud ( )
Psychodynamic perspective: Theoretical orientation in psychology that emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

16. Freud’s Theory Mind has three structures: Id Ego Superego
Id: Structure of personality that contains the sexual and aggressive instincts.
Pleasure principle: Motivating force oriented toward the immediate and total gratification of sensual needs and desires.
Libido: Instinctual pressure for gratification of sexual and aggressive desires.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

17. Freud’s Theory
In Freudian theory, ego is the center of conscious awareness
Ego: Structure of personality that gives the individual the mental powers of judgment, memory, perception, and decision making, enabling the individual to adapt to the realities of the external world.
Reality principle: Motivational force that leads the individual to confront the constraints of the external world.
Secondary process thinking: Kind of thinking involved in logical and rational problem solving.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

18. Freud’s Theory
In Freudian theory, the superego is the personality’s seat of morality
Superego: In psychoanalytic theory, the structure of personality that includes the conscience and the ego ideal.
Incorporates societal prohibitions and exerts control over the seeking of instinctual gratification.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

19. Psychoanalytic
Defense mechanisms: Tactics that keep unacceptable thoughts, instincts, and feelings out of conscious awareness and thus protect the ego against anxiety
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

20. Categories of Defense Mechanisms
Displacement
Intellectualization
Reaction formation
Repression
Denial
Projection
Sublimation
Regression
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

21. Psychodynamic Perspective
Psychosexual stages: Normal sequence of development through which each individual passes between infancy and adulthood
At each stage, the libido becomes fixated on a particular “erogenous” or sexually excitable zone of the body.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

22. Post-Freudians and Criticism
Carl Jung ( )
Alfred Adler ( )
Karen Horney ( )
Erik Erikson ( )
According to Carl Jung, the deepest layer of the unconscious includes images common to all human experience which he called archetypes.
For Alfred Adler and Karen Horney, the ego was the most important aspect of personality.
Emphasized social concerns and interpersonal relations in the development of personality.
Erik Erikson gave greatest attention to the ego, or what he called “ego identity.”
Ego psychology: Theoretical perspective based on psychodynamic theory emphasizing the ego as the main force in personality.
The term “identity crisis,” is associated with Erikson, a task that he believed was central to development in adolescence.
Ego goes through a series of transformations throughout life in which a new strength or ability can mature.
He also believed that each stage builds on the one that precedes it, and in turn, influences all following stages.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

23. Post-Freudians and Criticism
Infant attachment style (Ainsworth)
Secure
Anxious
Avoidant
Object relations: One’s unconscious representations of important people in one’s life.
Ainsworth and her associates studied differences among infants in attachment style.
Attachment style: The way a person relates to a caregiver figure.
People are classified into one of three attachment styles: secure, anxious, and avoidant.
People with a secure attachment style relate to their close romantic partners without undue anxiety about whether or not their partners will care about them.
Anxious attachment in which they feel they cannot rely on their partner’s love and support.
Avoidant attachment style in which they fear rejection from others, and therefore try to protect themselves by remaining distant.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

24. Treatment Main goal of traditional psychoanalytic treatment
To bring repressed, unconscious material into conscious awareness
Free association
Core conflictual relationship theme (CCRT)
Free association: Method used in psychoanalysis in which the client speaks freely, saying whatever comes to mind.
The key elements of psychodynamic therapy:
Exploring the client’s emotional experiences.
Use of defense mechanisms, close relationships with others, past experiences.
Exploration of fantasy life in dreams, daydreams, and fantasies.
CCRT - Clinician assesses the client’s wishes, expected responses from others, and client responses either to the responses of others or to the wish.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

25. Behavioral Perspective
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Social learning and cognition
Behavioral perspective: Assumed that abnormality is caused by faulty learning experiences.
Classical conditioning: The learning of a connection between an originally neutral stimulus and a naturally evoking stimulus that produces an automatic reflexive reaction.
Operant conditioning: Learning process in which an individual acquires behaviors through reinforcement.
Reinforcement: The “strengthening” of a behavior.
Negative and positive reinforcement increase the frequency of the behaviors that precede them.
Social learning theory: Focuses on understanding how people develop psychological disorders through their relationships with others and through observation of other people.
Vicarious reinforcement: A form of learning in which a new behavior is acquired through the process of watching someone else receive reinforcement for the same behavior.
Self-efficacy: The individual’s perception of competence in various life situations.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

26. Behavioral Perspective
Treatment
Counterconditioning
Systematic desensitization
Contingency management
Token economy
Participant modeling
Counterconditioning: Process of replacing an undesired response to a stimulus with an acceptable response.
Systematic desensitization: Presenting the client with progressively more anxiety-provoking images while in a relaxed state.
Contingency management: Principle of rewarding a client for desired behaviors and not providing rewards for undesired behaviors.
Token economy: A client who performs desired activities earns chips or tokens that can later be exchanged for tangible benefits.
Participant modeling: Therapist first shows the client a desired behavior and then guides the client through the behavioral change.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

27. Cognitive Perspective
Treatment
Cognitive restructuring
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)
Cognitive perspective: Assumed that abnormality is caused by maladaptive thought processes that result in dysfunctional behavior.
Automatic thoughts: Ideas so deeply entrenched that the individual is not even aware that they lead to feelings of unhappiness and discouragement.
Dysfunctional attitudes: Personal rules people hold that interfere with adequate adjustment.
Treatment
Cognitive restructuring: Clients learn to reframe negative ideas into more positive ones.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): Clinicians focus on changing both maladaptive thoughts and maladaptive behaviors.
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT): Helps clients accept the full range of their subjective experiences, as they commit themselves to tasks aimed at achieving behavior change that will lead to an improved quality of life.
SOURCE: Adapted from A. T. Beck, A. J. Bush, B. F. Shaw, & G. Emery in Cognitive Therapy of Depression. Copyright © 1979 Guilford Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

28. Humanistic Perspective
Person-centered theory (Rogers)
Client-centered therapy
Self-actualization theory (Maslow)
Humanistic perspective: Regards people as motivated by the need to understand themselves and the world and to derive greater enrichment from their experiences by fulfilling their unique individual potential.
Carl Rogers' person-centered theory: Focuses on the uniqueness of each individual, the importance of allowing each individual to achieve maximum fulfillment of potential, and the need for the individual to confront honestly the reality of his or her experiences in the world.
Client-centered therapy: Based on the belief held by Rogers that people are innately good and that the potential for self-improvement lies within the individual.
Conditions of worth - Demands that parents place upon children.
Maslow's self-actualization: Maximum realization of the individual’s potential for psychological growth.
People are best able to experience self-actualization when they meet their basic physical and psychological needs.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

29. Humanistic Perspective
Treatment
Unconditional positive regard
Motivational interviewing (MI)
Unconditional positive regard: A method in client-centered therapy in which the clinician gives total acceptance of what the client says, does, and feels.
Motivational interviewing (MI): A directive, client-centered style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

30. Sociocultural Perspective
Emphasizes the ways that individuals are influenced by:
People
Social institutions
Social forces
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

31. Family Perspective
Assumed that abnormality is caused by disturbances in:
The pattern of interactions and relationships within the family
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

32. Sociocultural Perspective
Social discrimination
Social influences & historical events
Treatment:
Family therapy
Group therapy
Milieu therapy
Multicultural approach
Social discrimination: Prejudicial treatment of a class of individuals, seen in the sociocultural perspective as a cause of psychological problems.
Psychological disorders can emerge as a result of destructive historical events, such as the violence of a political revolution, the turmoil of a natural disaster, or the poverty of a nationwide depression.
Family therapy: Therapist works with several or all members of the family.
Group therapy: Therapist facilitates discussion among several clients who talk together about their problems.
Milieu therapy: Used in an inpatient psychiatric facility, in which all facets of the milieu, or environment, are components of the treatment.
Multicultural approach: Relies on awareness, knowledge, and skills of the client’s sociocultural context.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

33. Biopsychosocial Perspectives: An Integrative Approach
Most clinicians take an integrative approach
They select aspects of various models rather than adhering to a single one
Therapist views the needs of the client from multiple perspectives and develops a treatment plan that responds to these particular concerns.
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education.  This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 

34. For more information on material covered in this chapter, visit our Web site: