1. Liberalism & Nationalism
The Unifications of Italy and Germany

2. Congress of Vienna and 1815
Met to redraw the map of Europe prior to the Napoleonic Era

3. What is Conservatism? Obedience to political authority
Organized religion was essential to social order
Hated revolutionary chaos
Not accepting of liberal demands for civil liberties and representative government
Not accepting of Nationalism
Community took precedence over individual rights
Tradition was the best guide for order

4. Famous Conservatives
Sir Edmund Burke is considered the “father” of conservatism. This is evident in his 1790 response to the French Revolution titled Reflections on the Revolution in France.
“The state was a partnership but one not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.”
Edmund Burke

5. Sir Edmund Burke (1790) Reflections on the Revolution in France
The CONSERVATIVE response to the French Revolution (Burke- An Englishman)

6. Famous Conservatives
Joseph de Maistre was a counterrevolutionary during the French Revolution. He was an authoritarian conservative that argued for the restoration of a hereditary monarchy (considered divine right of kings); only an absolute monarch could guarantee “order in society.”

7. The Personalities- “The Big Four” aka- The Concert of Europe
The “Big Four” included Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia
Austria was represented by Klemens von Metternich who was considered the leader of the Congress of Vienna
He was the epitome of conservative reactionism; he resisted change and was unfavorable to liberals and reformers

8. The Personalities- “The Big Four”
Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh.
Objective was to achieve a balance of power on the continent by surrounding France with larger and stronger states
Prussia was represented by Karl von Hardenberg
Objective was to recover Prussian territory lost to Napoleon in 1807 and gain additional territory in Saxony (Northern Germany)

9. The Personalities- “The Big Four”
Russia was represented by Czar Alexander I
He fluctuated between liberal and reactionary views; main objective was to create a “free” and “independent” Poland with himself as king
France was represented by Perigod Talleyrand
He was France’s foreign minister and was not initially included in early deliberation, but he became a mediator when the interests of Prussia and Russia clashed with Great Britain and Austria thus bringing France in as a principle power

10. Principles of Settlement
Legitimacy-
Metternich’s idea of legitimacy meant returning power to the ruling families deposed by revolutionary warfare.
Bourbon rulers restored in France, Spain, Naples
Dynasties restored in Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany, Modena
Papal States returned to the Pope

11. Compensation-Territorially rewarding those states that sacrificed the most to stop Napoleon
Great Britain received naval bases in Malta, Ceylon, and Cape of Good Hope
Austria recovered Italian provinces of Lombardy and awarded Venetia, Galicia, and the Illyrian Provinces
Russia was given most of Poland, Finland, and Bessarabia
Prussia was awarded Rhineland, three-fifths of Saxony (Northern Germany), and a portion of Poland
Sweden was given Norway

12. Create a Balance in Power- arranging Europe so no country could upset international order and cause general war (Napoleonic Wars)
Created Kingdom of United Netherlands (included Holland and Belgium) on northern border of France
Creation of Germanic Confederation to replace Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine with Prussia gaining control of the Rhine River on eastern border with France
Switzerland received a guarantee of perpetual neutrality
Sardinia having its former territory of Piedmont restored with the addition of Genoa

13. Enforcement Provisions
Created the Concert of Europe which mainly consisted of Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
Enforce the status quo
Great Britain defined “concerted action” as the great powers meet to solve problems as it arose so that no state would act unilaterally and independently of the other great powers
Austria defined “concerted action” as the great powers defending against any change or threat to the status quo by liberal or national ideas-these were unhealthy for the body politic

14. Boundaries after the Congress of Vienna 1815

15. Ideologies and the ISMs
Ideology is a body of doctrine, myth, etc., with reference to some political and social plan, as that of fascism, along with the devices for putting it into operation.

16. Romanticism
Romanticism was a reaction against the Enlightenment (included classicism, rationalism, and deism) of the 18th Century.
Roots of Romanticism began in Germany, but spread throughout Europe
Strongest between
William Wordsworth
French Revolution 1848

17. Liberalism- first major theory to argue the individual is a self-sufficient being whose freedom and well-being are the sole reason for the existence of society
Thomas Malthus
David Ricardo

18. Conservatism- rose in reaction to liberalism and became a popular alternative to the violence and terror unleashed during the French Revolution
Klemens von Metternich
Sir Edmund Burke

19. Nationalism- raising the level of consciousness of people having commonalities in language, history, soil, traditions, culture, and a shared human experience to seek political unity

20. Socialism- reaction to the Industrial Revolution and laissez-faire economics; movement to address the social and economic injustices of the rich against the poor

21. Revolutions of 1848 Causes for revolution-
Severe food shortages caused by poor harvests (Irish Potato Famine)
Financial crisis due to downturn in the commercial and industrial economy
Business failures
Frustration by the urban artisan and working class due to lower wages; poor living conditions in cities

22. 5. Widespread unemployment 6
5. Widespread unemployment 6. Middle class dominance with unregulated economy pushed liberals to fight for civil liberties and to reform government 7. Nationalism in the Germanies and Italies to overthrow existing governments

23. Where Are These 1848 Revolutions?
France
Italy
Austria (Vienna, Bohemia, Hungary)
Prussia and the German Confederation

24. Revolutions of 1848

25. Why Did These Revolutions Fail?
They were spontaneous movements which lost popular support as the people lost enthusiasm.
2. They were urban movements, which were nullified by conservative landowners and peasants.

26. The middle class, who led the revolutions, came to fear the radicalism of their working class allies.
Divisions among national groups, and the willingness of one nationality to deny rights to other nationalities (destroyed movements in Eastern Europe)

27. Were There Any Positives?
Universal male suffrage in France
Abolished serfdom in Austria and the German states
Parliaments established in Prussia and German States
Determination by Prussia and Piedmont-Sardinia to succeed in unification schemes

28. ITALIAN UNIFICATION

30. Revolutions of 1848
Italy

31. Italian Nationalist Leaders
King Charles Albert
Giuseppe Mazzini (the Carbonari & Young Italy)
Giuseppe Garibaldi (follower of Mazzini)

32. Actions of 1848
Several revolutions occurred throughout ; most were separate from each other without any agreed plan
Sicily
Naples
Milan
Venice
Piedmont
Rome

33. Sicily & Naples Both were regions governed by Ferdinand II
At the beginning most rioters were middle class (landowners)
As the violence increased peasant and townspeople joined the protests and invaded estates of landowners
Middle class/landowners only sought reforms for themselves, and abandoned the cause

34. Austrian Rule Austria had control of Milan, Venice, Piedmont
Piedmont led the charge in trying to defeat the Austrians and push them out of Italy
However the Austrian army was too strong and defeated Piedmont. Austria maintained control of Northern Italy

35. Rome
Pope Pius IX controlled Rome at this time; he attempted to quell the angry masses by appointing Pellegrino Rossi (he was assassinated)
Pope refused to join fighting against Austria because it was a Catholic country
Pope fled Rome; extremists took control
A new republic was established with Mazzini as one of its leaders
France seizes an opportunity to defend the Church and weaken Austria
The new Roman Republic is defeated with France taking control of Rome

36. Outcomes of 1848 in Italy
Italy could not free itself from foreign control
Activities of the masses needed control; peasants in the north and even south lost faith in the nationalists and wanted Austrian control
Republicans such as Mazzini and Garibaldi had been discredited and would have to work to gain future support
The Pope was a powerful political figure; the question of Rome would have to be handled very carefully

37. The Italian Unification (Risorgimento)
The Italian peninsula had been split in many small states for centuries.
In the mid-19th century, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was the strongest north Italian state.
Although, there were some revolutionary and nationalist attempts of the Carbonari & Young Italy by the early 19th century to unite Italy, Italy stayed divided between Austria, France, Papal states and many small Italian states.

39. Guiseppe Mazzini and Guiseppe Garibaldi were two important names of the Italian Carbonari movement, Mazzini working with his pen and Garibaldi with his sword for the unification.
The Piedmontese prime minister Count Camillo Cavour allied with Napoléon III of France in 1859 and provoked Austria into war. Treaty of Plombieres
In April 1859, Austria attacked Piedmont-Sardinia. France joined with Piedmont-Sardinia in the fight.

40. Franco-Piedmontese armies defeated the Austrian army on June 4, 1859 at the Battle of Magenta in Lombardy.
The French army led by Emperor Napoléon III and the Piedmontese army led by king Victor Emmanuel II defeated the Austrian army led by Emperor Francis Joseph at the Battle of Solferino on June 21, 1859.
Piedmont-Sardinia gained from the defeated Austria the region of Lombardy.

41. In March 1860, the citizens of Tuscany and Romagna regions and cities of Parma, Modena, Bologna voted for union with the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.
France accepted these annexations in return for Nice and Savoy. Review Treaty of Villafranca
In 1861, the irregular forces of the Italian nationalist Garibaldi and the Piedmontese army of Victor Emmanuel II invaded all Southern Italy and annexed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.

42. On February 18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was crowned as King of Italy in Turin.
Attention
Rome, the capital of the Papal States, and Venetia, occupied by Austria, were not yet part of the united Italy.

43. The Kingdom of Italy joined with Prussia against Austria in 1866
The Kingdom of Italy joined with Prussia against Austria in Although Austria defeated Italy, Austria’s defeat in front of Prussia enforced Austria to cede Venetia region to Italy.
When Napoléon III’s France, protector of the Papal States, was defeated by Prussian led German alliance, Italy invaded Rome on September 20, 1870, making it the capital.
These two annexations completed Italy’s unification.

45. Guiseppe Mazzini Member of the Carbonari Established Young Italy
Wrote about revolution and an unified Italian Republic
Goals:
Eliminate Austria’s domination
Overthrow Italian tyrants
Unite Italy as a liberal and democratic republic

46. Guiseppe Garibaldi Member of the Carbonari and follower of Mazzini
He and the Red Shirts were responsible for liberating southern Italy
Wanted a democratic republic, but more importantly a unified Italy
He had to compromise with Cavour for a unified Italy, but it would be under a constitutional monarchy

47. Count Camillo Cavour “Unifier of Italy”
Believed in liberal ideas, traveled to Great Britain and France-admired their constitutional governments
1852-Appointed by Victor Emmanuel II as Piedmont’s Prime Minister
Goal: unite Northern Italy as a liberal constitutional monarchy ruled by the House of Savoy

48. Cavour’s Domestic Accomplishments
Created a balanced budget
Established banks
Built railroads, factories, ports
*Piedmont becomes a prosperous and progressive state under Cavour’s leadership

49. Cavour’s Foreign Policy Accomplishments
Gains Lombardy and eventually Venetia from Austria
Secretly supports Garibaldi’s march through southern Italy
Annexes the Papal States/Rome from the French (Rome would still be controlled by the Pope). This was done to keep Austria and France from interfering

50. Convinces Garibaldi to agree to a constitutional monarchy of a united Italy.
March 17, 1861 King Victor Emmanuel II becomes king of a united Italy
Final unification will occur after the Franco-Prussian War-Italy will gain Venetia (Venice) and Rome (1870)

52. German Unification

54. 1848-49 Revolutions in the German Kingdoms/States
Middle Class
Freedom of Press
Jury Trials
Representation in government
Establish a united Germany as a republic
Lower Class
Lacked food due to poor harvests
Much like the British Luddites, German craftsmen and skilled laborers destroyed new machines

55. Various German states granted concessions; however Prussia tries to suppress uprisings
The suppression led to more violence; king promises to introduce a new liberal constitution
Some were even calling for a united Germany which would strengthen the region’s economy, political structure, and international standing

56. Frankfurt Parliament (Assembly)
This was created to represent all Germans
More debates than actual reforms
Needed to decide if Austria should be included in a united Germany
Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland
Should a united Germany be a republic or monarchy
4. Would all German areas be included?

57. Frankfurt Parliament had only minority support
Violence broke out from republic supporters
Mini-parliaments emerged in the smaller German states
Junkers feared tax exemptions and land would be taken

58. 1849 Frankfurt Parliament created a constitutional monarchy and offered it to Prussia’s Friedrich Wilhelm IV. He refuses.
“…shaped out of dirt and dregs of revolution, disloyalty, and treason.”
This ends hope of unification under the Frankfurt Parliament

59. Debate continues over what a united Germany would look like…
Grossdeutschland -“big Germany” -Includes Austria in a unified Germany
Kleindeutschland -“little Germany” - Austria would not be included in a united Germany

61. Realpolitik

62. German Unification
The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck re-organized the Prussian might in the 1860s. He was a German nationalist believing in the Realpolitik.
Prussia was the leader of the Zollverein formed between 38 German states of the German Confederation since 1838 and had some crucial strengths in the Europe of the mid-19th century, such as:
- Prussia possessed a very high level of primary and technical education, an impressive university and scientific establishment and very good research institutes and chemical laboratories for its times.

63. - Prussia had a unique military short-service system for its armed forces which involved 3 years obligatory service in the active regular army, then another 4 years service in the reserve army before each able-bodied man passed into the “Landwehr (territorial army)”. No substitutes were permitted (which was not the case for the other European nations!).
Attention
This system gave Prussia a far larger front-line army relative to its population.

64. - The Prussian general staff carefully studied its past mistakes and readjusted the Prussian army’s training, organization, mobilization (through the railway system) and weapons accordingly.
- The Prussian general staff taught its generals to move and fight independently at war using their initiatives but being always ready to converge upon the scene of the decisive battle.

66. against Denmark against Austria against France.
Thanks to these advantages and Bismarck’s skills in statesmanship, Prussia accomplished the Unification of Germany through three military successes.
against Denmark
against Austria
against France.

67. Prussia vs. Denmark
Prussia, allying with Austria, defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War in 1864 and gained the Schleswig-Holstein region first as a joint Austro-Prussian possession and then excluded Austria from these provinces.

68. (German Civil War or Seven Weeks War)
Austro-Prussian War
(German Civil War or Seven Weeks War)
Prussia soundly defeats Austria at the battle of Koniggratz (July 1866)
Peace of Prague (August 1866)
Austria would not be part of any new German state. The Kleindeutsch plan prevailed over the Grossdeutsch plan
Venetia would be ceded to Italy
Austria would pay an indemnity to Prussia

69. Attention
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, the exclusion of Austria from German affairs, the creation of North German Confederation led by Prussia and the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and Frankfurt by Prussia, however, Austria was not invaded nor humiliated by Prussia. Bismarck wanted to keep it as a useful future ally.
Area in red is the North German
Confederation

70. Franco-Prussian War
The annexation of almost all Northern Germany by Prussia affected the European balance of power and irritated the French Empire led by Napoléon III (nephew of Napoléon I and Emperor of the French, ).
Bismarck was determined to achieve the unification of Germany against the will of France, if necessary with “blood and iron”.

71. In 1870, when the Spanish crown was offered to a Hohenzollern (royal family of Prussia) prince, the crisis arose and France declared war to Prussia on July 19, 1870.
Ems Telegram also contributed to the ire of the French and Napoleon III.
At the Battle of Sedan, on September 2, 1870, the French army was defeated by German armies and Napoléon III was taken prisoner.
A drawing of Bismarck conversing with Napoleon III after the latter’s capture at the Battle of Sedan September 2, 1870.

72. On September 4, 1870, the Second French Empire ( ) of Napoléon III ended and the third Republic was founded in France.
After the following defeats of the French forces, the King of Prussia Wilhelm I was crowned as German Emperor (Kaiser) in the Galerie des Glaces/Spiegelsaal/Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, on January 18, 1871.
Attention
Bismarck thus largely created in 1871, the Prussian led German Empire, at the exclusion of Austria.

73. The foundation of the German Empire (Second Reich, 1871-1918)
Emperor Wilhelm I and Prince von Bismarck in Versailles hailing the creation of the German Empire (Reichsgründung), January 18, 1871.

74. The German Empire

75. Treaty of Frankfurt (May 10,1871)
The defeated France signed the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt on May 10,1871, agreeing upon ceding Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen) to the newly-created German Empire.
France accepted also to pay a war indemnity of 5 billion francs to Germany and German troops remained in parts of France until the last installment was paid off in September 1873.

76. Attention
The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, embittered Franco-German relations and created a French revanchisme (revenge) for decades to come, contributing to the European rivalries which would erupt in World War I.
As a result of the French defeat, the Papal States, no longer under French protection, were seized (September 20, 1870) by the young Italian kingdom, completing the unification of that country.

77. That’s a Wrap

79. Liberal vs. Conservative
Cavour
Bismarck
Liberal
Sincere nationalist
United Italy as a liberal constitutional-monarchy
Conservative
Prussian patriot
Loyal to the Hohenzollern family (Wilhelm I)
Primary goal was to enhance Prussian power by establishing dominance over a new German state