1. Today’s Bell Ringer Evolution Define these words from Chapter 11:
22 February
Define these words from Chapter 11:
Evolution (this is in ch. 10)
Gene pool
Allele frequency
Mutation
Microevolution
Directional selection
Gene flow
Genetic drift
Natural selection
Today’s Bell Ringer
Evolution
Study Guide Questions:
Pg 109 – all
Pg 110 – 11
Pg 111 – 1 & 2
Pg 112 – # 7
Pg 113 – 1, 2, 3

2. 23 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
Darwin sailed on the HMS Beagle from 1831 to During his voyage he made observations and hundreds of collected fossils, animals, and plants.
Upon his return, he began to put down his observations and published a few summary articles and books on his travels and observations.
He ultimate wrote the On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1859). In this text, Darwin explains that evolution occurs through Natural Selection and outlined four factors. What are they?
In your notebook, write down those four factors/observations that are in your textbook

3. There were many important naturalists in the 18th century.
Linnaeus: classification system from kingdom to species (1735)
Buffon: species shared ancestors rather than arising separately (1770s)
E. Darwin: more-complex forms developed from less-complex forms (1870s)
Lamarck: environmental change leads to use or disuse of a structure (1822)

4. Charles Darwin Born: February 12, 1809 Died: April 19, 1882
Published the Origin of Species in 1859
Studied plant hormones, breeding variation in pigeons and many other things.

5. KEY CONCEPT
There were theories of biological and geologic change before Darwin.

6. Alfred Russel Wallace (8 Jan. 1823 – 7 Nov 1913)

8. Wallace was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in On the Origin of Species. Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia.
He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography". Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation.

9. Darwin’s Observations
1) Variation heritable differences exists among individuals within species.
2) Overproduction, all offspring do not survive to become reproducing adults, the environment cannot support all progeny.
3) Adaptation, organisms must be able to survive a changing environment for their offspring to be able to find mates and produce more offspring. 
4) Descent with modification, organisms will change to better fit their environment as time progresses.

10. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST! Right?
Darwin’s Inferences
Inference 1: The organisms whose variations best fit them to the environment are the ones who are most likely to survive, reproduce, and pass those desirable variations on to the next generation.
Inference 2: Unequal survival and reproduction will lead to favored traits that may become inherited by future generations.
Natural Selection predicts the
SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST! Right?
Wrong! Survival of the fittest was coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864.
Natural Selection predicts that a species survival is tied to its “FITNESS”.
Those organisms that produce the most offspring have the greatest chance
for survival.

11. Key words from Darwin’s work:
Non-random mating & sexual selection
Adaptation
Variation leads to biological diversity

12. Darwin developed two main ideas
Natural selection – mechanism by which fit individuals survive and pass on their genes. Unfit individuals do not.
Evolution -natural selection causes change over time, or evolution. This explains life’s unity and diversity – all life on earth descended from a common ancestor (life’s unity) and then evolved into all the diversity that has ever existed on Earth (99% of which is already extinct!)
**Natural selection is the mechanism; evolution is the result*
He used the phrase descent with modification to capture both ideas.
Descent captured his idea of a common ancestor from which all life descended
Modification captured his idea of adaptations leading to diversity.

13. Population - same species, same place, same time
Species - members of the same population that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.. Reproductive compatibility is key.
Gene pool - the collection of all of the genes within a population.
Populations evolve. Individuals do not!

14. Gene pool
Allele frequency
Microevolution
Directional selection
Natural selection

15. Genetic variation leads to phenotypic variation.
Phenotypic variation is necessary for natural selection.
Genetic variation is stored in a population’s gene pool.
made up of all alleles in a population
allele combinations form when organisms have offspring

17. Theories of geologic change set the stage for Darwin’s theory.
There were three theories of geologic change.
catastrophism
uniformitarianism
gradualism

18. Uniformitarianism – processes that change the earth are uniform through time.

19. Gradualism – proposed by James Hutton
Gradualism – proposed by James Hutton. Change in landforms happen in small stages over very long periods of time.

20. Evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable traits of species (populations) over successive generations.
Process of biological change by which decedents come to differ from their ancestors and adapt to their environment is Natural Selection.

21. Today’s Bell Ringer Please define these words: Fossils
24 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
Please define these words:
Fossils
Molecular & genetic evidence (pg 317)
Biogeography
Embryology
Homologous structures
Vestigial structure
Convergent evolution – this is not an evidence of evolution, but it
is an important concept to know.
These words explain the evidence for Evolution.
It is important that you completely understand
what they mean and examples for each concept.

22. Evidences of Evolution
The following are
Evidences of Evolution

23. Darwin observed fossil and geologic evidence supporting an ancient Earth.
Darwin found fossils of extinct animals that resemble modern animals.
Darwin found fossil shells high up in the Andes mountains.

24. Tilted Sedimentary Rock Strata of Sandstone Interbedded with Mudstone
 Gerald & Buff Corsi

25. He saw land move from underwater to above sea level due to an earthquake.
Darwin extended his observations to the evolution of organisms.

26. Evidence for evolution in Darwin’s time came from several sources.
Fossils provide evidence of evolution.
Fossils in older layers are more primitive than those in the upper layers.

27. Fossils provide a record of evolution.
Paleontology is the study of fossils or extinct organisms.

28. Paleontology provides evidence to support evolution.

29. Human Transitional Fossil: Australopithecus Afarensis
First bipedal hominids. Bipedal means hands free for carrying food and babies. And can see above grasses. 4-2 million years ago
Hominid is the family that includes humans and great apes.
Brain much smaller than ours – only 35% as big. No tool use.
4 feet tall

30. How would you determine if this fossil was related to modern humans?
First bipedal hominids. Bipedal means hands free for carrying food and babies. And can see above grasses. 4-2 million years ago
Hominid is the family that includes humans and great apes.
Brain much smaller than ours – only 35% as big. No tool use.
4 feet tall

31. Molecular and genetic evidence support fossil and anatomical evidence.
Two closely-related organisms will have similar DNA sequences.

32. Hox genes indicate a very distant common ancestor.
control the development of specific structures
found in many organisms
Protein comparisons, or molecular fingerprinting reveals similarities among cell types of different organisms.

33. Evolution unites all fields of biology.
Scientist from any fields contribute to the understanding of evolution.
The basic principles of evolution are used in many scientific fields.

34. The study of geographic distribution provides evidence of evolution.
island species most closely resemble nearest mainland species
populations can show variation from one island to another

35. Australian Marsupials are closely related - all evolved from a common ancestor - therefore have common characteristics

36. Today’s Bell Ringer Please define these words: Fossils
25 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
Please define these words:
Fossils
Molecular & genetic evidence
Biogeography
Embryology
Homologous structures
Vestigial structure
Convergent evolution – this is not an evidence of evolution but it
is an important concept to know (analogous structure).
These words explain the evidence for Evolution.
It is important that you completely understand
what they mean and examples for each concept.
Study Guide Pages
105 & 106, all questions

37. Embryology provides evidence of evolution.
identical larvae, different adult body forms
similar embryos, diverse organisms
Larva
Adult barnacle
Adult crab

40. The study of anatomy provides evidence of evolution.
Homologous structures are similar in structure but different in function.
Homologous structures are evidence of a common ancestor.
Human hand
Bat wing
Mole foot

43. Evolution.berkeley.edu

44. Structural patterns are clues to the history of a species.
Vestigial structures are remnants of organs or structures that had a function in an early ancestor.
Ostrich wings are examples of vestigial structures.

45. Vestigial Structures Structures that no longer have a use
Remnants of structures that were once useful….
Examples in humans: wisdom teeth, coccyx, appendix, Darwin’s Tubercle
What was the ancestral purpose of these structures?
Why do we still have them?

46. Transitional Fossils: Evolutionary transitions have left signs in the fossil record
Archaeopteryx – transition between dicosaurs and
Fossilized whales have traits that link today’s whales to their terrestrial ancestors. Fossilized leg bones of Basilosaurus and Ambulocetus show the hind limbs of whale ancestors

47. Convergence: Evolution’s Wild Card
Not all similarity represents common ancestry!
Species from different evolutionary branches may resemble each other because they evolved similar adaptations in similar environments….in other words, by coincidence
This is called convergent evolution and the similar traits are called analogies (not homologies!)

48. Sugar Gliders and Flying Squirrels
Remarkably similar but only distantly related.
Flying squirrels are N. American mammals – Sugar Gliders are Australian marsupials

49. Convergence:
Dolphins and Sharks

50. Sharks and Dolphins Dolphins are aquatic mammals
Sharks are cartilaginous fish (along with rays and skates)
They separately evolved similar traits as aquatic predators: Dorsal fins, fusiform body shape, coloration
These are analogous traits

51. Sea Lions and Seals

52. Convergence
Sealions and seals have a very distant common ancestor. Sealions are more closely related to bears and seals are more closely related to otters.
They have converged on a form. It is a co-incidence.
Their structures are analogous to each other.

53. Allele frequencies measure genetic variation.
measures how common allele is in population
can be calculated for each allele in gene pool

54. Gene flow is the movement of alleles between populations
Gene flow: movement of alleles from one pop. to another
Occurs when individuals join new populations and reproduce.
Gene flow keeps neighboring populations similar.
Low gene flow increases the chance that two populations will evolve into different species.
bald eagle migration

55. Adaptive radiation

56. Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive radiations: closely related species that have recently evolved from a common ancestor by adapting to different parts of the environment
Occurs
in an environment with few other species and many resources
Hawaiian and Galápagos Islands
Catastrophic event leading to extinction of other species

58. The founding of a small population can lead to genetic drift.
 The current population is thought to have descended from only seven females and eight males. One of the early colonists apparently carried a recessive allele for retinitis pigmentosa, a progressive form of blindness that afflicts homozygous individuals. The frequency of the allele that causes this disease is ten times higher on Tristan da Cunha than in the populations from which the founders came.
The founding of a small population can lead to genetic drift.
It occurs when a few individuals start a new population.
The founder effect is genetic drift that occurs after start of new population.

59. Genetic drift has negative effects on a population.
(bottle neck and founder effect)
less likely to have some individuals that can adapt
harmful alleles can become more common due to chance

60. Geographic isolation
Harris’ Antelope Squirrel 
White-tailed Antelope Squirrel
Ammospermophilus harrisii
Ammospermophilus leucurus

62. A reduction in variation can be harmful or lead to extinction.
Genetic variation in a population increases the chance that some individuals will survive.
A reduction in variation can be harmful or lead to extinction.
Where is that variation contained
living organisms?

63. 26 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
What factors could cause the original species “A”, to evolve into new species, B and C?
Lack of gene flow (no migration)
Physical separation
Adaption to their new environments C
The original
Mainland
Population B
Hundreds of
miles separate
these islands.

64. C B
Even though the animals that arrive on islands B and C may have become new species, what danger may wait their fate?
Low genetic variation may lead to inbreeding and extinction.

65. Anthropoids are humanlike primates.
They are subdivided into the New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and hominoids.
Homonoids are divided into hominids, great apes, and lesser apes.
Hominids include living and extinct humans.

66. Bipedal means walking on two legs.
foraging
carrying infants and food
using tools
Walking upright has important adaptive advantages.

67. There are many fossils of extinct hominids.
Most hominids are either the genus Australopithecus or Homo.
Australopithecines were a successful genus.
The Homo genus first evolved 2.4 million years ago.

68. Modern humans arose about 200,000 years ago.
Homo sapiens fossils date to 200,000 years ago.
Human evolution is influenced by a tool-based culture.
There is a trend toward increased brain size in hominids.
Australopithecus
afarensis
Homo habilis
Homo
neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens
Lucy – 4 mybp
1.5 mybp
196,000 thousand ybp

69. If you wanted to know if an ancient fossil primate bone is related to Ancient Primates,
Which fossil would you compare it to, A or B?
Modern B A
Ancient

70. If you wanted to know if an ancient fossil primate bone is related to Modern Primates,
Which fossil would you compare it to, A or B?
Modern B A
Ancient

71. Many species evolve from one species during adaptive radiation.
ancestral species diversifies into many descendent species
descendent species usually adapted to wide range of environments

72. Geographic isolation – once the same species, they have since diverged into two.
Harris’ Antelope Squirrel 
White-tailed Antelope Squirrel
Ammospermophilus harrisii
Ammospermophilus leucurus

73. Youtube – Bill Nye Evolution part 1
Youtube – Bill Nye Evolution part 2

74. 26 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
Natural Selection – Swallowtail Butterfly Lab Exercise
There are many different species of swallowtail butterflies, which are in the genus Papilio. Swallowtail butterflies are represented by the orange, pink, red, and orange squares of paper, noted with an “ST” on the back.
There are over 170 species of butterflies (sometimes called flutterbys) in Florida. Some of these species are poisonous and make birds sick when they eat them.
In this exercise, you will examine the directional selection pressure on butterflies by their bird predators.
With four people in each group, two will be the butterflies and two will be birds. After two runs, the groups will switch roles. Each group will start with 4 species of butterflies, each species will have 10 member of the same species for a total of 40 butterflies. The ‘butterflies’ are to be place upside down on the desk in front of you. With the eyes of the birds closed, the butterflies will mix up all the butterflies on the desk. The birds will then open their eyes and take turn ‘eating’ butterflies. Birds will continue to eat until they eat an “X”, which indicates a poisonous butterfly. County the number of “ST” and “X” left on the table and record the number for each species (color of paper) in the table for Trial 1. Repeat the event four times, recording the number of “ST” and “X” after each feeding event.

75. Today’s Bell Ringer Taxonomy Lab
29 February
Today’s Bell Ringer
Taxonomy Lab
Over the next two or three minutes, develop a two or three sentence explanation about what you think makes species different from each other. Please use your notes from last week to develop your answer.
This will be turned in at the end of class along with this lab activity.

76. Objectives: By using a cladogram,
Use this illustration
as a guide to assist you as well as pages 526 & 527 in your text.
Kingdom Anamalia
Objectives: By using a cladogram,
arrange the plastic animals in such a
way that they reflect evolutionary
differences, from least to most complex
body systems. Your text is the resource
to refer to, Appendix A.
Once your group has arranged the seven animals, answer the following questions:
1) Which organisms show homologies? Why?
2) Which organisms show analogies (convergent evolution)? Why?
3) Do any of these organisms have vestigial structures? If so, what are they?
4) Summarize what makes a species unique and how does morphology informs scientists on evolution through the process of Natural Selection.

77. Today’s Bell Ringer FSA testing – students in 5, 6, & 7 finished the
1 March
Today’s Bell Ringer
FSA testing – students in 5, 6, & 7 finished the
cladistics lab.

78. 2 March
Today’s Bell Ringer
In your notebook, write down the difference between
homologous and analogous structures and
provide examples.
Based on the cladistics lab, there were clearly problems
with the difference between these concepts.

79. There are several ways the cladogram could
have been put together.
Example one
Nurses young
Has carpals, phalanges,
ulna, and radial bones.
Boney Skelton
Internal fertilization
Vertebra
Bilateral Symmetry
Kingdom Anamalia

80. There are several ways the cladogram could
have been put together.
Example two
Has feathers
Has a beak
No scales
True bone skeleton
endoskeleton
Complete digestive system
Kingdom Anamalia

81. There are several ways the cladogram could
have been put together.
Example three
Live birth
4 chambered heart
Lungs
Internal fertilization
endoskeleton
Complete digestive system
Kingdom Anamalia

82. Chapter 12 Earth was very different billions of years ago.
There have been several hypotheses of Earth’s origins. The two that receive the most attention are known as “Chemical Evolution”, and the meteorite hypothesis.
The Chemical Evolution model predicts that the organic compounds necessary for life were synthesized from early earth inorganic molecules.
The Miller-Urey experiment of the 1950s attempted to mimic this event. They were able to see inorganic molecules self aggregate into macromolecules such as amino acid-like compounds.
- They did not try and did not see any living things evolve.

83. Several sets of hypotheses propose how life began on Earth.
electrodes
heat source
amino acids
water
“atmosphere”
“ocean”
Miller-Urey experiment: demonstrated that organic molecules could be made by passing an electric current, simulating lightning, through closed system that held a mixture of gases
The result of this experiment showed that
life may have been able to self-aggregate.
Work by Louis Pasteur (1859) and Francisco Redi (1668) demonstrated that
spontaneous generation is not how life began.

84. Organic compounds could be made by passing an electrical current
through a mixture of gasses (methane, ammonia, hydrogen and
water vapor).
These atmospheric gasses comprise the carbon
and nitrogen necessary for amino acids to be formed.
The oceans provided the elements contained in water.

85. Meteorite hypothesis: amino acids may have arrived on Earth through meteorite or asteroid impacts

86. iron-sulfide bubbles hypothesis: biological molecules combined in compartments of chimney-like structures on the ocean floor. The compartments may have acted as the first cell membranes.

87. There are different hypotheses of early cell structure.
lipid membrane hypothesis: lipid spheres, or liposomes, could form around a variety of organic molecules, acting as a cell membrane

88. A hypothesis proposes that RNA was the first genetic material.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that catalyze their own replication.
DNA needs enzymes to replicate itself.

89. Eukaryotic cells may have evolved through endosymbiosis.
Endosymbiosis is a relationship in which one organism lives within the body of another.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts may have developed through endosymbiosis.

90. Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population
Variation allow organisms adapt to change – whether from it is a changing climate, predators, pathogens, disease, or their own food source.
Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population
Consider, for example, the spread of alleles for resistance to insecticides
Insecticides have been used to target mosquitoes that carry West Nile virus and malaria
Alleles have evolved in some populations that confer insecticide resistance to these mosquitoes

91. Page 381 in your textbook

92. 4 March Notes on the board for test review

93. Cladograms help illustrate the relationships between different organisms

94. Geographic isolation
Punctuated equilibrium
Variation
Kingdom Protista
Archaea
Endosymbiosis
Behavioral isolation
Phylogeny
Kingdom Fungi
Homologous structures
Convergent evolution
Vestigal structure
Anthropoids
Bottleneck effect
Gene flow
Reproductive isolation
Geographic isolation
Kingdom Animalia
Adaptive radiation
Embryology
Intersexual
Cladogram
Natural Selection
Genetic Drift
Eukarya
Intrasexual
Biogeography
Bacteria
Evolution
Fossils
Speciation
Kingdom Plantae
Primate
Coevolution
Cladistics
Hominid
Prosimians