1. EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE Unit 2 - TOPIC 3

2. celestial object
any object outside or above Earth’s atmosphere.

3. Examples of celestial objects
Universe
Galaxy
Solar System
Star (sun)
Planets (Earth)
Moon

6. Light Year???? Speed of light 3x108 m/s 671 million mile/hr
Sunlight takes approximately 8 minutes to reach Earth
Speed of light
3x108 m/s
671 million mile/hr

7. The symbols below are used to represent different regions of space.
Which diagram shows the correct relationship between these four regions? [If one symbol is within another symbol, that means it is part of, or included in, that symbol].

8. 2) Which sequence correctly lists the relative sizes from smallest to largest?
(1) our solar system, universe, Milky Way Galaxy
(2) our solar system, Milky Way Galaxy, universe
(3) Milky Way Galaxy, our solar system, universe
(4) Milky Way Galaxy, universe, our solar system

9. Age of our Solar System & Universe

10. Universe
everything that exists.
(all space, all matter, all energy).

11. Age of the Earth?

12. Age of Earth is 4.6 bya b.y.a = billion years ago
4,600 mya

13. Age of the Universe….. The universe is….
approx billion years old.
The universe is….
older and bigger than anything else.

14. 3) What is the inferred age of our solar system, in millions of years?
(1) 544 (2) (3) (4) 10,000

15. 4) The explosion associated with the Big Bang theory and the formation of the universe is inferred to have occurred how many billion years ago?
less than 1
(2) 2.5
(3) 4.6
(4) over 10

16. 5) Which statement best describes the age of our solar system and the universe?
(1) The universe is at least twice as old as our solar system.
(2) Our solar system is at least twice as old as the universe.
(3) Our solar system and the universe are estimated to be 5 billion years old.
(4) Our solar system and the universe are estimated to be 10 billion years old.

17. Big Bang Theory
Big Bang Theory - the theory that explains the origin of the universe.
all matter and energy started out concentrated in a small area.
expansion begins.
The earliest atoms form (hydrogen and helium).
Matter clumps together to form stars and groups of stars (galaxies).
The universe is still expanding in all directions.

19. Evidence for the Big Bang.

20. Long-wavelength background radiation
(microwaves), that appears to be coming for all directions in the universe.

21. 2) Electromagnetic energy emitted from stars.
each element emits energy of a particular wavelength.
The wavelengths emitted by stars are shifted either toward the blue end (shorter wavelengths) or red end (longer wavelengths) of the electromagnetic spectrum.

22. Each element produces a signature wavelength of electromagnetic energy.
hydrogen
However, when stars are examined these characteristic wavelengths are shifted.

23. Blue shift occurs when the wavelengths are shifted towards shorter wavelengths. (Stars are moving towards one another.
normal
shifted

24. Red shift occurs when the wavelengths are shifted toward the longer wavelengths. (Stars are moving away from one another).
normal
shifted

25. OLD ESRT……

27. NEW Simplified version
ESRT p.14

28. normal
Red shift

29. Almost all galaxies have a red shift….
therefore, the universe is expanding in all directions.

30. ANOTHER EXAMPLE….
The Baboon… or the car……

31. If headed towards you....

32. If headed away from you…

33. This shifting of wavelengths is called the Doppler Effect.
Car horn example

34. 6) When viewed from Earth, the light from very distant galaxies shows a red shift. This is evidence that these distant galaxies are
(1) revolving around the Sun
(2) revolving around the Milky Way
(3) moving away from Earth
(4) moving toward Earth

35. 7) The diagram below shows the spectral lines for an element.
Which diagram best represents the spectral lines of this element when its light is observed coming from a star that is moving away from Earth? A B C D

36. 8) Astronomers viewing light from distant galaxies observe a shift of spectral lines toward the red end of the visible spectrum. This shift provides evidence that
(1) orbital velocities of stars are decreasing
(2) Earth’s atmosphere is warming
(3) the Sun is cooling
(4) the universe is expanding

37. Base your answers to questions 9 through 12 on the table below, which shows eight inferred stages describing the formation of the universe from its beginning to the present time.

38. 9) How soon did protons and neutrons form after the beginning of the universe?
(1) 10–43 second (3) 10–6 second
(2) 10–32 second (4) 13.7 billion years

39. 10) What is the most appropriate title for this table?
(1) The Big Bang Theory
(3) The Law of Superposition
(2) The Theory of Plate Tectonics
(4) The Laws of Planetary Motion

40. 11) According to this table, the average temperature of the universe since stage 3 has
decreased, only
(2) increased, only
(3) remained the same
(4) increased, then decreased

41. 12) Between which two stages did our solar system form?
(1) 1 and 3 (3) 6 and 7
(2) 3 and 5 (4) 7 and 8

42. Base your answers to question 13 on the calendar model shown below of the inferred history of the universe and on your knowledge of Earth science. The 12-month time line begins with the Big Bang on January 1 and continues to the present time, which is represented by midnight on December 31. Several inferred events and the relative times of their occurrence have been placed in the appropriate locations on the time line.

43. 13) State one piece of evidence used by scientists to support the theory that the Big Bang event occurred.

44. 3.2) Structure of the Universe.

45. Galaxies. A galaxy is a collection of billions of stars.
Our galaxy is spiral shaped.
The name for our galaxy is the Milky Way.
Our solar system is located 2/3 way out on one arm of a spiral

46. Stars. A large ball of gas held together by gravity.
Made of hydrogen and helium which undergo nuclear fusion (hydrogen is fused to each other and changed into helium with tremendous release of energy)

47. Energy Production In Stars
Most of the energy produced in stars results from nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion is the combination of the nuclei of smaller elements to form the nuclei of larger elements.
The sun converts Hydrogen into Helium.
Nuclear fusion can only occur in extremely high temperature and high pressure conditions like those found in star interiors.

48. Luminosity and Temperature of Stars diagram. See ESRT p15

50. LUMINOSITY of a star measures how bright it is.
-any star located ABOVE the value of the Sun (luminosity = 1) is BRIGHTER than the Sun
-any star located BELOW the line value of the Sun in dimmer than the Sun

51. Star types The sun is an average-sized star. Average size
Average temperature
Average age
Average brightness (luminosity)

52. Main Sequence Stars
About 90 percent of studied stars are located in a broad band called the Main Sequence.
Other ESRT categories: Giants, Super Giants, and White Dwarfs

53. Star Origin and Evolution
Stars originate from clouds of gas and dust called nebulae
Gravity causes these gas and dust clouds to clump up into protostars
When the mass becomes large enough, gravitational contraction results in high enough temperature and pressure to start nuclear fusion.
Stars spend most of their lives as a Main Sequence star.

54. Stars with masses similar to the sun eventually expand to become a red giant.
These stars use up most of their nuclear fuel and collapse to form a white dwarf and eventually a black dwarf, neutron star or disperse back into dust and gasses (nebulae).

55. Stars with masses greater than the sun exist for much shorter periods of time.
These massive stars evolve into super giants and eventually explode in a super nova event.

56. 14) The star Algol is estimated to have approximately the same luminosity as the star Aldebaran and approximately the same temperature as the star Rigel. Algol is best classified as a
main sequence star
(2) red giant star
(3) white dwarf star
(4) red dwarf star +

57. 15) The reaction below represents an energy-producing process.
The reaction represents how energy is produced
(1) in the Sun by fusion
(2) when water condenses in Earth’s atmosphere
(3) from the movement of crustal plates
(4) during nuclear decay

58. 16) Which process produces the energy that allows the stars of the universe to radiate visible light?
(1) convection (3) insolation
(2) nuclear fusion (4) radioactive decay

59. 17) Which list shows stars in order of increasing temperature?
Barnard’s Star,
Polaris, Sirius, Rigel
(2) Aldebaran, the Sun,
Rigel, Procyon B
(3) Rigel, Polaris,
Aldebaran,
Barnard’s Star
(4) Procyon B, Alpha Centauri,
Polaris, Betelgeuse

60. 18) Compared with our Sun, the star Betelgeuse is
smaller, hotter,
and less luminous
(2) smaller, cooler,
and more luminous
(3) larger, hotter,
(4) larger, cooler, and
more luminous

61. 19) Compared to other groups of stars, the group that has relatively low luminosities and relatively low temperatures is the
Red Dwarfs
(2) White Dwarfs
(3) Red Giants
(4) Blue Supergiants

62. Base your answers to question 20 and 21 on the star chart below, which shows part of the winter sky visible from New York State. Some of the brighter stars are labeled and the constellation Orion is outlined.
20) Identify the color
of the star Bellatrix,
which has a surface
temperature of
approximately 25,000 K
BLUE

63. 21) In the space provided, list the stars, other than Bellatrix, found on the chart in order
of decreasing
luminosity. Rigel,
the most luminous
star, has been
listed.
Betelgeuse
Aldebaran
Sirius
Procyon B

64. 22) Compared to the surface temperature and luminosity of massive stars in the Main Sequence, the smaller stars in the Main Sequence are
hotter and less
luminous
(2) hotter and
more luminous
(3) cooler and
less luminous
(4) cooler and

65. NOTES FROM THIS POINT FORWARD ARE FROM 2009-2010 SCHOOL YEAR.
THEY MAY NOT MATCH YOUR NOTES PACKET.
CHECK BACK LATER FOR THE UPDATED VERSION.

66. III. SOLAR SYSTEM.

67. Our solar system is the sun and all objects that orbit the sun under its gravitational influence.

68. Parts of the Solar System.
About 99% of the mass of the solar system is contained in the sun.
A satellite is any object that revolves or moves around another object.

69. Asteroids
An asteroid is a solid rocky and/or metallic body that independently orbits the sun.
A large percentage of known asteroids are in orbits between Mars and Jupiter.
Gaspra

70. The Curious Tale of Asteroid Hermes
It’s dogma [accepted belief] now: an asteroid hit Earth 65 million years ago and wiped out the dinosaurs. But in 1980 when scientists Walter and Luis Alvarez first suggested the idea to a gathering at the American Association for Advancement of Sciences, their listeners were skeptical. Asteroids hitting Earth? Wiping out species? It seemed incredible.
At that very moment, unknown to the audience, an asteroid named Hermes halfway between Mars and Jupiter was beginning a long plunge toward our planet. Six months later it would pass 300,000 miles from Earth’s orbit, only a little more than the distance to the Moon….
Hermes approaches Earth’s orbit twice every 777 days. Usually our planet is far away when the orbit crossing happens, but in 1937, 1942, 1954, 1974 and 1986, Hermes came harrowingly [dangerously] close to Earth itself. We know about most of these encounters only because Lowell Observatory astronomer Brian Skiff rediscovered Hermes on Oct. 15, Astronomers around the world have been tracking it carefully ever since.…
Excerpted from “The Curious Tale of Asteroid Hermes,” Dr. Tony Phillips, NASA, November 3, 2003.

71. 23) When Hermes is located at position A and Earth is in the position shown in the diagram, the asteroid can be viewed from Earth at each of the following times except
sunrise
(2) Sunset
(3) 12 noon
(4) 12 midnight

72. 24) How does the period of revolution of Hermes compare to the period of revolution of the planets shown in the diagram?
Hermes has a longer period of revolution than Mercury, but a shorter period of revolution than Venus, Earth, and Mars.
(2) Hermes has a shorter period of revolution than Mercury, but a longer period of revolution than Venus, Earth, and Mars.
(3) Hermes has a longer period of revolution than all of the planets shown.
(4) Hermes has a shorter period of revolution than all of the planets shown.

73. Hermes = 777 days

74. 24) How does the period of revolution of Hermes compare to the period of revolution of the planets shown in the diagram?
Hermes has a longer period of revolution than Mercury, but a shorter period of revolution than Venus, Earth, and Mars.
(2) Hermes has a shorter period of revolution than Mercury, but a longer period of revolution than Venus, Earth, and Mars.
(3) Hermes has a longer period of revolution than all of the planets shown.
(4) Hermes has a shorter period of revolution than all of the planets shown.

75. 25) Why is evidence of asteroids striking Earth so difficult to find?
Asteroids are made mostly of frozen water and gases and are vaporized on impact.
(2) Asteroids are not large enough to leave impact craters.
(3) Asteroids do not travel fast enough to create impact craters.
(4) Weathering, erosion, and deposition on Earth have destroyed or buried most impact
craters.

76. 26) According to the diagram, as Hermes and the planets revolve around the Sun, Hermes appears to be a threat to collide with
(1) Earth, only
(2) Earth and Mars, only
(3) Venus, Earth, and
Mars, only
(4) Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars

77. Moon
A moon is a body that orbits a planet or asteroid.

78. Comets
A comet is often compared to a "dirty snowball" made from snow found along a road that has just been sanded.
The tail will always point away from the sun.
diagram;

79. The 1986 approach was the least favourable for Earth observers.
"I came in with Halley's Comet in It is coming again next year (1910), and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's Comet." - Mark Twain ( )
The 1986 approach was the least favourable for Earth observers.

80. Comet Hale-Bopp (formally designated C/1995 O1) was probably the most widely observed comet of the twentieth century, and one of the brightest seen for many decades. It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the Great Comet of 1811.
Hale-Bopp was discovered on 23 July 1995 at a very large distance from the Sun, raising expectations that the comet could become very bright when it passed close to the Sun. Although comet brightnesses are very difficult to predict with any degree of accuracy, Hale-Bopp met or exceeded most predictions for its brightness when it passed perihelion on April 1, The comet was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997.
The passage of Hale-Bopp was notable also for inciting a degree of panic about comets not seen for decades. Rumours that the comet was being followed by an alien spacecraft gained remarkable currency, and inspired a mass suicide among followers of the Heaven's Gate cult.

82. SUN

83. Meteoroids
Very small solid fragments that orbit the sun are called meteoroids.
When meteoroids burn up or vaporize, they leave a brief visual streak as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere and are called shooting stars.

84. If a meteor survives its trip through Earth’s atmosphere and lands on Earth’s surface, it is called a meteorite.
Some meteors have sufficient mass to create a depression in Earth’s crust called an impact crater.

85. Barringer Crater, Arizona
1 mile across, 570 feet deep
Impact velocity 2000 km/hr
Impact object size = 140ft

86. Evolution of the Solar System.
Our Solar system started approximately 5 billion years ago.
At first there was a large dust cloud.
Gravity caused the cloud to condense into one or more mass concentrations.
The planets, asteroids, and moons with solid surfaces bear witness to impact events in the form of craters.

87. Impact events have also been linked to climate change and mass extinctions.
Gravitational contraction of the planets and larger moons produced heat.
Heat caused the newly formed planets and moons to largely melt.
As a result, these bodies became layered into zones based on the density of their various elements and compounds.

88. Base your answers to questions 27 and 28 on the diagram below, which shows an inferred sequence in which our solar system formed from a giant interstellar cloud of gas and debris. Stage A shows the collapse of the gas cloud, stage B shows its flattening, and stage C shows the sequence that led to the formation of planets.

89. 27) From stage B to stage C, the young Sun was created
(1) when gravity caused the center of the cloud to contract
(2) when gravity caused heavy dust particles to split apart
(3) by outgassing from the spinning interstellar cloud
(4) by outgassing from Earth’s interior

90. 28) After the young Sun formed, the disk of gas and dust
became spherical in shape
(2) formed a central bulge
(3) became larger in diameter
(4) eventually formed into planets

91. Main Ideas and Supporting Details
DATE
Main Ideas and Supporting Details

92. 3.4a) PLANET CHARACTERISTICS
A planet's distance from the sun has a major effect on its characteristics.
The high temperature and pressure from particles emitted by the sun drove away less dense elements and compounds from the inner solar system.
Differences in the inner and outer solar system provide characteristics that allow the planets to be classified into the inner terrestrial planets and outer Jovian planets.

93. Terrestrial Planet Properties
close to the sun.
mostly solid.
relatively small diameter and high density.
few moons and no rings.

94. Jovian Planet Properties
far from the sun.
largely gaseous.
large diameters and low densities.
have many moons and have rings.

95. ESRT p15 Solar System Data

96. 29) Which planet is located approximately ten times farther from the Sun than Earth is from the Sun?
(1) Mars (3) Saturn
(2) Jupiter (4) Uranus

97. 30) Compared to the terrestrial planets, the Jovian planets are
(1) smaller and have lower densities
(2) smaller and have greater densities
(3) larger and have lower densities
(4) larger and have greater densities

98. 31) Which pair of shaded circles best represents the relative sizes of Earth and Venus when drawn to scale?

99. 32) Which object in our solar system has the greatest density?
(1) Jupiter (3) the Moon
(2) Earth (4) the Sun

100. 33) Which event takes the most time?
(1) one revolution of Earth around the Sun
(2) one revolution of Venus around the Sun
(3) one rotation of the Moon on its axis
(4) one rotation of Venus on its axis

101. 34) Compared to the Jovian planets in our solar system, Earth is
(1) less dense and closer to the Sun
(2) less dense and farther from the Sun
(3) more dense and closer to the Sun
(4) more dense and farther from the Sun

102. 35) Which object is closest to Earth?
(1) the Sun (3) the Moon
(2) Venus (4) Mars

103. Main Ideas and Supporting Details
DATE
Main Ideas and Supporting Details

104. 3.4b) Motions of the Planets.
The planets have many different motions. They…
move with the solar system around the Milky Way galaxy.
rotate or spin around an imaginary axis.
revolve around the sun in an orbit.

105. Planet Rotation
Planets spin on an imaginary axis in a motion called rotation.
The period of rotation is the amount of time it takes to spin around its imaginary axis and determines the length of a planet’s day.

106. Planet Revolution
A planet’s revolution is its movement around the sun in a path called an orbit.
Earth’s orbit is an oval shape called an ellipse.
Within the ellipse are two fixed points called foci.
The major axis of an ellipse is the longest straight-line distance across an ellipse.

107. Refresher…..An Ellipse Has an oval shape. Has two foci.
The sun is located at one of the foci.
The major axis is the longest straight line distance across the ellipse (and it goes through both foci).
diagram;

108. Leave some room for a diagram
Eccentricity
The degree of flattening or "ovalness" of an ellipse is measured by its eccentricity.
see ESRT front page for formula.
Write the formula for eccentricity;
Leave some room for a diagram

109. E = d / L L d f1 f2

111. as the foci are brought closer together, the ellipse becomes more like a circle and eccentricity decreases toward zero.
if the orbits of the planets were drawn to scale, they would look like circles - but they are not.
E ~ 1
E ~ 0

112. What is the approximate eccentricity of this elliptical orbit?
36) The diagram below represents the elliptical orbit of a moon revolving around a planet. The foci of this orbit are the points labeled F1 and F2.
What is the approximate eccentricity of this elliptical orbit?
(1) (3) 0.7
(2) (4) 1.4 d
E = d L L

113. (Calculate eccentricity and then compare to planet data in ESRT)
37) The diagram below is a constructed ellipse. F1 and F2 are the foci of the ellipse.
The eccentricity of this constructed ellipse is closest to the eccentricity of the orbit of which planet?
(Calculate eccentricity and then compare to planet data in ESRT)
(1) Mercury (3) Saturn
(2) Earth (4) Neptune d L

115. 38) Which bar graph correctly shows the orbital eccentricity of the planets in our solar system?

116. What is the approximate eccentricity of this ellipse?
39) The diagram below shows the elliptical orbit of a planet revolving around a star. The star and F2 are the foci of this ellipse.
What is the approximate eccentricity of this ellipse?
(1) (3) 0.68
(2) (4) 1.47 d L

117. 40) Which planet’s orbit around the Sun is most nearly circular?
(1) Mercury (3) Pluto
(2) Neptune (4) Venus

118. Main Ideas and Supporting Details
DATE
Main Ideas and Supporting Details

119. 3.4c Varying Distance of Planets from the Sun.
The elliptical shape of planetary orbits causes the planets to vary in distance from the sun during a revolution.
Earth is closest to the sun on or about January 3 (Winter).
Earth is farthest away from the sun on or about July 4 (Summer).

120. Add the Earth, dates and
the seasons.
Fall
Equinox
Sept. 23
Summer
Solstice
Winter
Solstice
sun
Dec. 21
June 21
Spring
Equinox
March 21

121. Inertia, Gravitation, Orbital Velocity/Speed and Planet Orbits.

122. Inertia
Is the concept that an object at rest will remain at rest, and that an object in motion will maintain the direction and speed of that motion unless an opposing force affects it.

123. Gravitation
Gravitation is the attractive force that exists between any two objects in the universe.
The greater the mass of one or both object, the more gravitational attraction there is between the objects.
diagram

124. WEIGHT ON EARTH vs. WEIGHT ON MOON
Mass of Earth is Greater
Force of Gravity is Greater
Your weight is Greater
Mass of the Moon is Less
Force of Gravity is Less
Your weight is Less

125. Also the closer together two objects are, the greater the gravitational attraction between them.
diagram

126. Force of Gravity is Strong
Far from Earth
Gravity is weak
“Weightless”
Close to Earth
Force of Gravity is Strong
Have Weight

127. Since each planet’s orbit has some eccentricity, its distance from the sun varies during its yearly revolution.
When a planet is closer to the sun, its orbital speed velocity is greatest.
When a planet is farthest from the sun its orbital speed is slowest.
diagram;

128. velocity
increasing
Perihelion
Aphelion
sun
minimum velocity
max velocity
velocity
decreasing

129. The period of revolution of a planet is the amount of time it takes the planet to make one orbit around the sun. (a year)
The period of revolution is related to the planet’s distance from the sun.

130. The closer a planet is to the sun..
The further a planet is from the sun
the smaller its orbit,
the shorter its period of revolution
and
the faster its speed of revolution.
the larger its orbit,
the longer its period of revolution
and
the slower its speed of revolution. A B

131. 41) One factor responsible for the strength of gravitational attraction between a planet and the Sun is the
(1) degree of tilt of the planet’s axis
(2) distance between the planet and the Sun
(3) planet’s period of rotation
(4) amount of insolation given off by the Sun

132. Base your answers to questions 42 through 43 on the diagram in your answer booklet. The diagram shows the positions of Halley’s Comet and Asteroid at various times in their orbits. Specific orbital positions are shown for certain years.

133. State one reason for your choice.
42) Determine which was traveling faster, Halley’s Comet or the asteroid, between the years 1903 and 1908.
State one reason for your choice.
Halley’s comet was traveling faster.
Halley’s comet was closer to the sun.

134. Halley’s comet is part of our solar system because it orbits the sun.
43) Explain why Halley’s Comet is considered to be part of our solar system.
Halley’s comet is part of our solar system because it orbits the sun.

135. 44) The diagram below shows a satellite in four different positions as it revolves around a planet.
max
min D
Which graph best represents the changes in this satellite’s orbital velocity as it revolves around the planet?

136. Base your answers to questions 45 through 49 on the two diagrams in your answer booklet. Diagram I shows the orbits of the four inner planets. Black dots in diagram I show the positions in the orbits where each planet is closest to the Sun. Diagram II shows the orbits of the six planets that are farthest from the Sun. The distance scale in diagram II is different than the distance scale in diagram I.

137. 45) On diagram I, place the letter W on Mars’ orbit to represent the position of Mars where the Sun’s gravitational force on Mars would be weakest. W

138. 46) On diagram II, circle the names of the two largest Jovian planets.

139. 47) How long does it take the planet Uranus to complete one orbit around the Sun? Units must be included in your answer.
84.0 years

140. Each of the orbits is an ellipse (oval, circle-like, eccentric)
48) Describe how the orbits of each of the nine planets are similar in shape.
Each of the orbits is an ellipse
(oval, circle-like, eccentric)

141. Pluto is sometimes closer to the sun than Neptune.
49) Pluto’s orbital speed is usually slower than Neptune’s orbital speed. Based on diagram II, explain why Pluto’s orbital speed is sometimes faster than Neptune’s orbital speed.
Pluto is sometimes closer to the sun than Neptune.